Pōwhiri

A pōwhiri (also called a pōhiri or pōwiri in some dialects) is a formal Māori welcoming ceremony onto a marae, involving speeches, cultural performance, singing and finally the ''hongi''.

Traditionally, the was a way by which the (people of the land) could determine the intentions of (visitors), so as to avoid conflict. is a cultural practice deeply rooted in Māori mythology. The serves the purpose of spiritually clearing a path for communication, so that the two groups can meet in a safe and productive way. The details of the (customs and protocols) of the vary between marae, but the general structure of the ceremony is broadly similar across all .

are still commonly practised to welcome important guests onto a marae. A may not be performed for every group of or in all circumstances; the is a similar but less formal welcome that may be used instead. A is often used to welcome the (the body of the deceased) onto a marae before a (funeral). are also often performed for tourist groups and as part of special events.

Process

While the general form of the is fairly consistent in across different tribal groups, specific details vary between iwi, hapū and individual marae.

In te reo Māori, the visitors to a marae are referred to as , while the people of the marae are referred to as (people of the land), (those with the power of the land), or (the people that live in the area).

Gathering of the manuhiri

Before the begins, the gather at the entrance of the marae. The entrance of marae vary widely; at some there may be a carved ornamental gate or (standing post), at others there may simply be a marker stone, or even nothing at all. Some marae feature a small waiting (building) or shelter, and they may even have toilets available for the convenience of the .

The period of time before the begins is often an opportunity for the to greet each other, and discuss who will perform the various roles during the . If a (gift to the hosts) has not been previously organised, contributions may be collected from the at this time. The is usually passed to the final person who is planned to speak on behalf of the .

Wero

The is an initial challenge made to the . '' refers to the "throwing of a spear". Not all begin with a , though they are common for guests of extremely high (stature), such as visiting foreign dignatories or government representatives. The original purpose of the was for the to confirm the peaceful intentions of the . Warriors were dispatched to meet the approaching outsiders, and test whether they came in peace. Today, the is a symbolic ceremony.

In the , male warriors of the make a ritual challenge to the . The warriors may perform a (war dance), and adopt a threatening stance in a line, with weapons such as (spears). A warrior of the will come forward, and place on the ground a , which is a token. The usually takes the form of a small branch with leaves (often mānuka), or in some places a carved ceremonial dart. The position of the can be significant, as an indicator of whether the can expect a warm welcome, or not. While the challenge is issued, the must wait quietly for an opportunity to signal their intentions.

In highly formal settings, there may be three warriors who come forward to issue the , one after another. The first is called the (warning challenger), the second is the , and the third is the . In each case, once the has been placed, the warrior retreats some short distance to observe the . Once placed, one of the most honoured male members of approaches, and picks up the . It is important during this process that the representative maintains eye contact with the warrior; for this reason, the usually lowers himself into a squat while picking up the , rather than bending over.

Once the final has been picked up by a representative of the , the final warrior—the —will turn their back to the , point their toward the marae, and begin to lead the procession of the onto the marae.

Karanga and whakaeke

The (formal procession) onto the marae begins with the (call) from the . The karanga takes the form of a wailing chant, and is typically performed by a mature woman (or group of women) of high standing within the marae; the person in this role is called . The beginning of the karanga signals to the that they should begin walking onto the marae grounds. Typically, women and children lead the procession of the onto the marae grounds, though in some areas the men may lead the procession. The group of proceeding are referred to as the .

The karanga is not a prescribed (song); rather, the words of the melodic chant are determined by the caller. The lyrical contents of the karanga usually refer specifically to the ; inviting them to approach, asking them questions about the purpose of their visit, honouring them and their ancestors, and sharing information about the (ancestry and history) of the marae itself. The karanga will typically also include a welcome or farewell to the spirits of the dead. The karanga may involve a type of ceremonial dance called , in which the women of the marae rhythmically shake their hands to wave aside the spiritual aspects of the marae, and permit the to enter the physical space.

In more highly formal protocol—typically when the visitors include someone of very high —a kaikaranga from (called a or ) also walks near the front of the procession of to answer the call of the . In this way, the of the and that of the call back and forth to each other as the approach the marae (meeting ground). However, for modern the are often not expected to respond with their own karanga, or the marae may send a of their own to serve in the role for them. In formal protocol when the karanga is a call-and-response there may be as many as three rounds of call back and forth between the hosts and the guests. The final karanga (the , or settling karanga) is delivered by the of the tangata whenua, and acknowledges that the guests and hosts now stand on common ground. It may invite the to take their seats.

The historic purpose of the karanga was to alert the people of settlement that outsiders were approaching, so they could gather together to welcome them, or defend themselves. It was also used to confirm that the visitors had peaceful intentions. In Māori mythology, the karanga serves as an acknowledgement of the ancestors of the marae and of the guests, and of the spirits of the dead. To this end, the karanga may invite the to pause as they enter the marae grounds, to acknowledge the ancestors and those who have died. The karanga establishes the (need to be respected) of the gathering. It also acts as an invitation to the various (gods), (ancestors), and the spirits of sacred natural features like mountains and rivers to witness the arrival of the guests. For this reason, the karanga is a highly tapu process, and it is usually a role reserved only for women of very high mana on the marae, who have the spiritual strength to speak to these entities.

Fundamentally, the karanga embodies the of the marae. It is the first communication between the and the , and it unites them in both the physical and spiritual space. It is such a highly significant part of the process, that if a woman with is not present (or willing) to issue the karanga, the later steps cannot proceed.

Haka pōwhiri

The is a (war dance) that may be performed by the warriors of the during or just after the karanga. Rather than being a mark of aggression, this haka is rooted in the tradition of helping the to draw ashore their (canoes). In this way, the haka can be seen as the symbolic "drawing in" of the safely onto the "shore" of the marae. The is not always performed, and is most commonly seen at for highly dignified visitors.

Whaikōrero and waiata

The is the formal speech-making of the (meeting). The may take place inside the , or outside on the marae . If held indoors, the stop to remove their shoes before entering the . Seating is usually arranged such that the and the are facing one another. It is important that both groups be seated at the same level, such that speakers face one-another eye-to-eye. In most cases, women sit behind the men, and speakers sit at the front. The is the bench on which the speakers sit. can also refer to the covered seating at the front of the meeting house; for outdoor this may be reserved for particularly significant people, such as the Governor-General, the Kingitanga, or highly respected (elders).

The speakers of the are called , and the role is typically an honour afforded to people with particularly high . The can refuse an individual the right to speak, though this is rare. are exclusively performed in . During a typical the speaker may greet the , the marae, the land on which they stand, nearby mountains and rivers, the people to whom they are speaking, and the spirits of the dead. Once the (greetings) are completed, the purpose of the meeting will be addressed. After each speech, a is usually sung to support the speaker.

The final speaker will end their speech by placing the on the ground before the . This will be picked up and accepted by the final speaker, who always speaks after the . Spiritually this is an important part of the process, as it ensures that the (life force) of the marae returns to , and does not leave with the when they leave. A final karanga may be performed before the is picked up, to welcome the gift. Protocols around the picking up of the vary between marae.

is an art, as well as something of a competition, in which each side attempts to one-up the other with the quality of their oratory and message. Speakers may gesture with walking sticks, or weapons such as axes and . Silently walking up and down, as well as performative ducking and turning, may be used to add emphasis to parts of the speech. Even today, the can be a quite robust debate. For example, during the for Te Matatini in 2023, leaders from Tainui and Ngāti Whātua Ōrākei debated who had the right to be called (those with the power of the land) in (Auckland).

Kawa

The term refers to the specific protocols of the marae, and these vary between regions, and even within iwi. Broadly, however, the fall into two categories.

Pāeke

Under the (also sometimes called or ), the give all of their speeches one after the other, before inviting the to make their speeches. Once the speakers are finished, a speaker from the will speak last.

Tū mai, tū atu

Under the (also sometimes called , , or ), the and alternate speeches, beginning and ending with a speaker from the . Depending on the number of speakers, the may yield the of the marae to the to balance the speeches.

Hongi

The final part of the process is the hongi. This is where a physical connection is made between the and . In this process, the will cross to the and file past the , shaking hands () and pressing noses or foreheads together. The gesture of hongi represents several things; to some it represents the sharing of the breath of life, to others it represents sharing of thoughts.

The spiritual importance of the hongi is that it connects the two groups physically. This completes the process of the , by lifting the state of that was created when the karanga began. By physically touching the , the become (common, or normal), essentially joining to become members of the for the duration of the visit. In recent years—particularly after the COVID-19 pandemic—some marae have adjusted their (protocol) to require only handshakes, fistbumps or elbow-touches for the hongi.

Once the has been lifted, the are free to move around the marae. From then on, they are no longer (first-time visitors), and are accorded many of the same privileges accorded to for the duration of their stay. In future, they may now be permitted to enter the marae without a . Once the is completed, the way is clear for more general business of the to be discussed. This is known as the (discussion) and may be conducted in English or , depending on the nature of the business.

Kai hākari

After the formal procedure of the is completed, the people may be called to the (food hall) to share a meal. For some iwi, the sharing of food is important to lift the of the . Depending on the significance of the occasion, the meal may be a substantial feast involving hāngī, or a more modest morning tea.

Spiritual significance

Spiritually the represents the coming-together of two different groups of people. The formal proceeding has the purpose of "clearing a pathway" for a constructive and safe discussion, without the risk of spiritual impediments or "evil spirits". It also serves to "settle" the parties, so that the work of the meeting can be completed.

The process of the is rooted in Māori mythology. Various are associated with parts of the and the marae. For example, Tūmatauenga, the god of war, is associated with the challenge of the . The is sometimes referred to as the Te-Tūmatauenga-o-Tu-te-ihiihi (the standing place of the god of war). Contentious , as far as including insults, may be considered permissible on the for this reason. The (ancestral house) of the marae is considered the domain of Rongomātāne, the god of peace, and therefore the language used within the building is usually expected to be more polite and conciliatory. This separation of war and peace is similarly the reason for the removal of shoes when entering the ; this is to prevent dust from the house of war entering the house of peace.

Mihi whakatau

A is a less formal welcoming ceremony. The process of a may include many aspects of a , but the protocol is somewhat relaxed.

A key difference between a and is usually (but not always) the absence of the karanga, calling the into the meeting place. For some iwi, a true karanga can only take place under the mana of an ancestral marae, and so would be inappropriate to perform elsewhere. If a involves a karanga, it may be modified to a more generic call of welcome that does not invoke the spirits of the dead; this can enable younger women or even young girls to issue it. By modifying or omitting the karanga, the spiritual of the meeting is not established, and therefore other protocols can be relaxed. This can enable the speeches to be made in English, or by a woman, or for the welcome to take place somewhere other than a marae, such as a convention centre or a school hall. For this reason, a may be a way to safely incorporate elements of into a non-Māori context, without devaluing the traditional importance of a , or engaging in tokenism.

The serves the same purpose as the full ; it establishes the (relationship of shared experience) between two groups. may be conducted to begin conferences, or to welcome new students to a school. The term may also be applied to other forms of welcome, such as the introductory preface to a book.

Role in tangihanga

are a common feature of (funerals). During a , the (body of the deceased) is transported to the marae. In te ao Māori, death is a highly tapu subject; therefore it is important that a is performed to welcome the deceased onto the marae. The karanga calls the spirits of other dead ancestors to the marae, so that the spirit of the recently dead may join them.

Criticism

Role of women

Historically in many iwi, women have not had the right to speak during the , or to accept the during the , and are expected to sit behind the men during the . These aspects of are still in practice in many places today. Some iwi, such as Ngāti Porou, do accept the right of women to stand and ; though, as it is for men, this right is only afforded to women with sufficient mana. Women are typically permitted to speak during the general discussions that occur after the formal has completed; the prohibition does not usually extend to general conversation outside the formality of the .

The prohibition on women speaking has been a point of controversy in modern times. At Waitangi Day in 2021, Judith Collins—at the time, leader of the New Zealand National Party—complained that she was not permitted to speak during the formal welcome onto the Waitangi Treaty Grounds, describing the tradition as "sexist". This comment came in spite of the prime minister Jacinda Ardern—also a woman—speaking during the same event. Collins has complained about what she perceives as the "sexism" of the as far back as mid-2000s. In 2006 she and fellow female politicians Anne Tolley and Paula Bennett walked out of a , after being rebuked by a kaumatua for sitting in the front with the men. At the time she said she felt she was being treated as a "second class guest" and that as a member of parliament, her gender should be irrelevant to where she sits. It later transpired that Child, Youth and Family—who were hosting the —in fact had a policy that women were permitted to sit at the front. Prime minister Helen Clark described Collins' behaviour during the as " boorish".

Hiwi Tauroa asserted that to interpret the role of women in the as "female suppression", one must evaluate the process solely from a non-Māori perspective. In te ao Māori, the tapu and mana of a woman demands that she not be targeted with abusive speech, which can occur as part of the whaikōrero; for this reason they are not permitted to speak, lest they be responded to in abusive way. He also points to the other critical roles in the that can only be performed by women, particularly the karanga and the waiata. These roles arise from the high tapu placed on women on the marae, which grant them some supremacy over men. Through these roles, women can assert significant control over proceedings. For example, a woman may terminate a speech that she considers to have gone on too long by beginning the closing waiata, or walking in front of the speaker. Similarly, the karanga can only be issued by a woman. Therefore, if a woman is unwilling to welcome the manuhiri for some reason, the cannot even begin, and the manuhiri must remain outside. In this way, the karanga embodies the (power of the woman).

Georgina Stewart echoes Tauroa's interpretation of the role of women in the . She argues that the accusation of sexism stems from non-Māori ignorance of Māori culture. The interpretation of Māori culture by non-Māori—and attempts to "box-tick" Māori culture into non-Māori contexts—leads to a misinterpretation of the role of women in the space. Ultimately, she rejects feminist criticism of the as another example of colonisation; the imposition of western cultural beliefs onto Māori. In a review of Māori reactions to non-Māori claims of sexism, Katherine Curchin concludes that Māori women overwhelming reject such criticism, as they understand it to be an attack from the outside on the Māori worldview. Even Māori women who themselves are internally critical of the restrictions on women in the pōwhiri, often reject the same criticism when it comes from outsiders.

The role of women in the has been gradually changing in modern times, with women taking on more speaking roles in the . Since the 1990s, female dignatories—particularly the Prime Minister—have been increasingly permitted to speak at Waitangi. Some Māori women have strongly criticised the prohibition on women speaking, particularly when the right has been afforded to non-Māori women but not Māori women. Mere Mangu of Ngāpuhi has often stood and given a whaikōrero on the Waitangi Treaty grounds, in direct opposition to the tikanga of the iwi. In 2024, women had speaking roles in the ceremonies that occurred at Waitangi.

Right-wing criticism

During the 2005 New Zealand general election, Don Brash, leader of the New Zealand National Party and later founder of anti-Māori lobby group Hobson's Pledge, criticised the use of in welcoming international visitors:

I mean, I think there is a place for Maori culture but why is it that we always use a semi-naked male, sometimes quite pale-skinned Māori, leaping around in, you know, mock battle?

In April 2013 right-wing Danish Marie Krarup MP who visited New Zealand called a she experienced "grotesque". Colin Craig, the-then leader of the Conservative Party, sided with her statement by saying no visitors should have to face a "bare-bottomed native making threatening gestures" if they didn't want to.

References

Bibliography

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Citations

External links

Youtube video
of a at Government House in 2014 for the Duke and Duchess of Cambridge, showing the ''wero'', the ''karanga'', the ''whakaeke'', and a ''haka pōwhiri''.

Youtube video
of a at the Waitangi Treaty Grounds during the 2025 Waitangi Day commemorations, welcoming the Prime Minister and senior government ministers onto the marae. The final taki is thrown to the ground, signalling to David Seymour that he may not be welcome.
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Māori culture
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