[
In Samkhya philosophy, ''Purusha'' is the plural immobile cosmic principle, pure consciousness, unattached and unrelated to anything, which is "nonactive, unchanging, eternal, and pure". ''Purusha'' uniting with '']Prakṛti
Prakriti ( ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by the '' Samkhya'' school, where it does not refer merely to matter or nature, but includes all co ...
'' (matter) gives rise to life.
In Kashmir Shaivism
Kashmir Shaivism tradition is a 20th century umbrella-term for a body of Sanskrit learning, Sanskrit exegetical literature from several Nondualism, non-dualist Shaivism, Shaiva-Shaktism, Shakta Tantra, tantric and Monism, monistic religious t ...
, ''Purusha'' is enveloped in five sheaths of time (''kāla
Kala (, ) is a Sanskrit term that means 'time' or 'death'. As time personified, destroying all things, Kala is a god of death, and often used as one of the epithets of Yama. In Shaivism, Kala is known as the fiery avatar of Shiva, Bhairava, K ...
''), desire (''raga
A raga ( ; , ; ) is a melodic framework for improvisation in Indian classical music akin to a musical mode, melodic mode. It is central to classical Indian music. Each raga consists of an array of melodic structures with musical motifs; and, fro ...
''), restriction ('' niyati''), knowledge ('' vidyā'') and separatedness (''kalā''); it is the universal Self ('' paramātman'') under limitations as many individual Selfs ('' jīvātman'').
Definition and general meaning
There is no consensus among schools of Hinduism on the definition of ''Purusha'', and it is left to each school and individual to reach their own conclusions. For example, one of many theistic traditions script such as Kapilasurisamvada, credited to another ancient Hindu philosopher named Kapila, first describes ''Purusha'' in a manner similar to Samkhya-Yoga schools, but then proceeds to describe buddhi (intellect) as second ''Purusha'', and ''ahamkara
Ahamkara (Sanskrit: अहंकार; Romanized: Ahaṁkāra), "I-making," is a Sanskrit term in Hindu philosophy referring to the construction of a Self-concept, or the false identification of the self ( Purusha, atman) with impermanent entit ...
'' (egoism) as third ''Purusha''. Such pluralism and diversity of thought within Hinduism implies that the term ''Purusha'' is a complex term with diverse meanings.
The animating causes, fields, and principles of nature are ''Purusha'' in Hindu philosophy. Hinduism refers to ''Purusha'' as the soul of the universe
The universe is all of space and time and their contents. It comprises all of existence, any fundamental interaction, physical process and physical constant, and therefore all forms of matter and energy, and the structures they form, from s ...
, the universal spirit present everywhere, in everything and everyone, all the time. ''Purusha'' is the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form, and all-pervasive. It is ''Purusha'' in the form of nature’s laws and principles that operate in the background to regulate, guide, and direct change, evolution, cause, and effect. It is ''Purusha'', in the Hindu concept of existence, that breathes life into matter, is the source of all consciousness, one that creates oneness in all life forms, in all of humanity, and the essence of Self. According to Hinduism, it is ''Purusha'' why the universe operates, is dynamic and evolves, as against being static.
Vedas
During the Vedic period
The Vedic period, or the Vedic age (), is the period in the late Bronze Age and early Iron Age of the history of India when the Vedic literature, including the Vedas (–900 BCE), was composed in the northern Indian subcontinent, between the e ...
, the ''Purusha'' concept was one of several mythemes offered for the creation of the universe. ''Purusa'', in the ''Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...
'', was described as a being who becomes a sacrificial victim of the gods, and whose sacrifice creates all life forms including human beings.[Klaus K. Klostermair (2007), A survey of Hinduism, 3rd Edition, State University of New York Press, , pp 87]
In the ''Rigveda
The ''Rigveda'' or ''Rig Veda'' (, , from wikt:ऋच्, ऋच्, "praise" and wikt:वेद, वेद, "knowledge") is an ancient Indian Miscellany, collection of Vedic Sanskrit hymns (''sūktas''). It is one of the four sacred canoni ...
,'' "Puruṣa is all that yet hath been and all that is to be" (पुरुष एवेदगं सर्वं यद्भूतं यच्च भव्यम्।).
Varna system
In the ''Purusha Sukta'', the 90th hymn of the 10th book of the ''Rigveda'', ''varna
Varna may refer to:
Places Europe
*Varna, Bulgaria, a city
** Varna Province
** Varna Municipality
** Gulf of Varna
** Lake Varna
**Varna Necropolis
* Vahrn, or Varna, a municipality in Italy
* Varna (Šabac), a village in Serbia
Asia
* Var ...
'' is portrayed as a result of human beings created from different parts of the body of the divinity ''Purusha''. This Purusha Sukta verse is controversial and is believed by many scholars, such as Max Müller
Friedrich Max Müller (; 6 December 1823 – 28 October 1900) was a German-born British comparative philologist and oriental studies, Orientalist. He was one of the founders of the Western academic disciplines of Indology and religious s ...
, to be a corruption and medieval or modern era insertion into Veda, because unlike all other major concepts in the Vedas including those of ''Purusha'', the four varnas are never mentioned anywhere else in any of the Vedas, and because this verse is missing in some manuscript prints found in different parts of India.
Upanishads
The abstract idea of ''Purusha'' is extensively discussed in various Upanishads, and referred interchangeably as Paramatman
''Paramatman'' (Sanskrit: परमात्मन्, IAST: Paramātman) or ''Paramātmā'' is the absolute '' Atman'', or supreme Self, in various philosophies such as the Vedanta and Yoga schools in Hindu theology, as well as other Indian r ...
and Brahman
In Hinduism, ''Brahman'' (; IAST: ''Brahman'') connotes the highest universal principle, the ultimate reality of the universe.P. T. Raju (2006), ''Idealistic Thought of India'', Routledge, , page 426 and Conclusion chapter part XII In the ...
(not to be confused with Brahmin).[Angelika Malinar, 'Hindu Cosmologies', in Jessica Frazier (ed.), ''A Continuum Companion to Hindu Studies'', , p. 67] In the Upanishads and later texts of Hindu philosophy
Hindu philosophy or Vedic philosophy is the set of philosophical systems that developed in tandem with the first Hinduism, Hindu religious traditions during the Iron Age in India, iron and Classical India, classical ages of India. In Indian ...
, the ''Purusha'' concept moved away from the Vedic definition of ''Purusha'' and was no longer a person, cosmic man or entity. Instead, the concept flowered into a more complex abstraction:
In the Upanishads, the ''Purusha'' concept refers to the abstract essence of the Self, Spirit and the Universal Principle that is eternal, indestructible, without form and is all pervasive.[ The ''Purusha'' concept is explained with the concept of '']Prakrti
Prakriti ( ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by the '' Samkhya'' school, where it does not refer merely to matter or nature, but includes all co ...
'' in the Upanishads. The Universe is envisioned in these ancient Sanskrit texts as a combination of the perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature.[Theos Bernard (1947)]
The Hindu Philosophy
The Philosophical Library, New York, pp 69–72 Material reality (or ''Prakrti'') is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. ''Purusha'' is the universal principle that is unchanging, uncaused but is present everywhere and the reason why ''Prakrti'' changes, transforms and transcends all of the time and which is why there is cause and effect.[
]Rishi
In Indian religions, a ''rishi'' ( ) is an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mention in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "gre ...
Angiras
Angiras ( (stem), , , nominative singular , , , rendered Angirā in Hindi) was a Vedic rishi (sage) of Hinduism. He is described in the ''Rigveda'' as a teacher of divine knowledge, a mediator between men and gods, as well as stated in othe ...
of the '' Atma Upanishad'' belonging to the ''Atharvaveda
The Atharvaveda or Atharva Veda (, , from ''wikt:अथर्वन्, अथर्वन्'', "priest" and ''wikt:वेद, वेद'', "knowledge") or is the "knowledge storehouse of ''wikt:अथर्वन्, atharvans'', the proced ...
'' explains that ''Purusha'', the dweller in the body, is three-fold: the Bahyatman (the Outer-Atman) which is born and dies; the Antaratman (the Inner-Atman) which comprehends the whole range of material phenomena, gross and subtle, with which the Jiva
''Jiva'' (, IAST: ), also referred as ''Jivātman,'' is a living being or any entity imbued with a life force in Hinduism and Jīva (Jainism), Jainism. The word itself originates from the Sanskrit verb-root ''jīv'', which translates as 'to br ...
concerns himself, and the Paramatman which is all-pervading, unthinkable, indescribable, is without action and has no Samskaras
Samskara, saṃskāra, saṅskāra or sanskara may refer to:
* Samskara (rite of passage), Hindu and Jain rites of passage
* Samskara (ayurvedic), a technique in ayurvedic medicine
* Samskara (Indian philosophy), the concept of imprints or impress ...
.
In Samkhya and Yoga
Both Samkhya, a school of Hindu philosophy that considers reason, as against Nyaya
Nyāya (Sanskrit: न्यायः, IAST: nyāyaḥ), literally meaning "justice", "rules", "method" or "judgment", is one of the six orthodox (Āstika) schools of Hindu philosophy. Nyāya's most significant contributions to Indian philosophy ...
school's logic or Mīmāṃsā
''Mīmāṁsā'' (Sanskrit: मीमांसा; IAST: Mīmāṃsā) is a Sanskrit word that means "reflection" or "critical investigation" and thus refers to a tradition of contemplation which reflected on the meanings of certain Vedic tex ...
school's tradition, as the proper source of knowledge, and Yoga philosophy
Yoga philosophy is one of the six major important schools of Hindu philosophy,Maurice Phillips (Published as Max Muller collection), The Evolution of Hinduism, , PhD. Thesis awarded by University of Berne, Switzerland, page 8 though it is only ...
state that there are two ultimate realities whose interaction accounts for all experiences and universe, namely Purusha (spirit) and Prakrti
Prakriti ( ) is "the original or natural form or condition of anything, original or primary substance". It is a key concept in Hinduism, formulated by the '' Samkhya'' school, where it does not refer merely to matter or nature, but includes all co ...
(matter). The universe is envisioned as a combination of perceivable material reality and non-perceivable, non-material laws and principles of nature. Material reality, or ''Prakrti'', is everything that has changed, can change and is subject to cause and effect. Universal principle, or ''Purusha'', is that which is unchanging (aksara
Akshara () is a term used in the traditional grammar of the Sanskrit language and in the Vedanta school of Indian philosophy.
The term is derived from अ, '' a-'' "not" and क्षर्, ''kṣar-'' "melt away, perish". The uniting aspect of ...
) and is uncaused.
Puruṣa is the transcendental self or pure consciousness. It is absolute, independent, free, imperceptible, unknowable through other agencies, above any experience by mind or senses and beyond any words or explanations. It remains pure, "nonattributive consciousness". Puruṣa is neither produced nor does it produce. It is held that unlike Advaita Vedanta and like Purva-Mīmāṃsā, Samkhya believes in a plurality of the puruṣas.
Yoga philosophy holds that, in addition to the purusha of each individual, there is a special purusha called Ishvara
''Ishvara'' () is a concept in Hinduism, with a wide range of meanings that depend on the era and the school of Hinduism. Monier Monier Williams, Sanskrit-English dictionarySearch for Izvara, University of Cologne, Germany In ancient texts of ...
, which is free of all kleshas and karmas.
Both Samkhya and Yoga school holds that the path to moksha (release, Self-realization) includes the realization of ''Purusha''.
Puranas
In the Puranas, "The Bhagavata Purana
The ''Bhagavata Purana'' (; ), also known as the ''Srimad Bhagavatam (Śrīmad Bhāgavatam)'', ''Srimad Bhagavata Mahapurana'' () or simply ''Bhagavata (Bhāgavata)'', is one of Hinduism's eighteen major Puranas (''Mahapuranas'') and one ...
and the Mahabharata
The ''Mahābhārata'' ( ; , , ) is one of the two major Sanskrit Indian epic poetry, epics of ancient India revered as Smriti texts in Hinduism, the other being the ''Ramayana, Rāmāyaṇa''. It narrates the events and aftermath of the Kuru ...
boldly proclaim Vishnu
Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
as ultimate Purusha described in Purusha Sukta
Purusha Sukta (, ) is a hymn in the Rigveda, dedicated to the Purusha, the "Cosmic Being". It is considered to have been a relatively late addition to the scripture — probably, to accord theological sanction to an increasingly unequal Kuru po ...
prayer", whereas Shiva
Shiva (; , ), also known as Mahadeva (; , , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, ɐɦaːd̪eːʋɐh and Hara, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the God in Hinduism, Supreme Being in Shaivism, one of the major traditions w ...
is described as ultimate Purusha (cosmic male) in Shiva Purana
The ''Shiva Purana'' (original Sanskrit title: Śivapurāṇa (शिवपुराण) and Śivamahāpurāṇa (शिवमहापुराण) is one of eighteen major texts of the '' Purana'' genre of Sanskrit texts in Hinduism, and part o ...
. According to Indologist
Indology, also known as South Asian studies, is the academic study of the history and cultures, languages, and literature of the Indian subcontinent, and as such is a subset of Asian studies.
The term ''Indology'' (in German, ''Indologie'') is ...
W. Norman Brown, "The verses of Purusha Sukta are definitely a reference to Vishnu
Vishnu (; , , ), also known as Narayana and Hari, is one of the Hindu deities, principal deities of Hinduism. He is the supreme being within Vaishnavism, one of the major traditions within contemporary Hinduism, and the god of preservation ( ...
, who, through his three steps, is all-pervading (i.e. he spreads in all directions)".
The Bhagavata Purana explains the origin of the four varnas from the body of Purusha, identified as Vishnu:
Vedanta
Bhagavad Gita
In the Bhagavad Gita
The Bhagavad Gita (; ), often referred to as the Gita (), is a Hindu texts, Hindu scripture, dated to the second or first century BCE, which forms part of the Hindu epic, epic poem Mahabharata. The Gita is a synthesis of various strands of Ind ...
, ''purusha'' is used to refer to Supreme Being in several instances:
Arjuna
Arjuna (, , Help:IPA/Sanskrit, �ɾd͡ʒun̪ə is one of the central characters of the ancient Hindu epic ''Mahabharata''. He is the third of the five Pandava brothers, and is widely regarded as the most important and renowned among them. ...
refers to Krishna
Krishna (; Sanskrit language, Sanskrit: कृष्ण, ) is a major deity in Hinduism. He is worshipped as the eighth avatar of Vishnu and also as the Supreme God (Hinduism), Supreme God in his own right. He is the god of protection, c ...
as ''purusha'' in several verses, such as Chapter 10 verse 12, Chapter 11 verse 18, Chapter 11 verse 38.
In Chapter 15 verse 16 Krishna refers to two types of ''purushas'': ''kshara'' (perishable), '' akshara'' (imperishable). In verse 17, he identifies himself as "highest ''purusha''" (''paramatman
''Paramatman'' (Sanskrit: परमात्मन्, IAST: Paramātman) or ''Paramātmā'' is the absolute '' Atman'', or supreme Self, in various philosophies such as the Vedanta and Yoga schools in Hindu theology, as well as other Indian r ...
''), superior to both ''kshara'' and ''akshara''.
Brahma Sutras
The Brahma Sutra
The ''Brahma Sūtras'' (), also known as the Vedanta Sūtra (Sanskrit: वेदान्त सूत्र), Shariraka Sūtra, and Bhikshu-sūtra, are a Sanskrit text which criticizes the metaphysical dualism of the influential Samkhya philos ...
1.2.13 references Chandogya Upanishad 4.15.1, which describes the purusha that is seen in the eye:
The Brahma Sutra 1.2.13 clarifies that this person is the highest self, Brahman:
See also
Notes
References
Sources
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{{Consciousness
Hindu philosophical concepts
Rigvedic deities