Punic Language

The Punic language, also called Phoenicio-Punic or Carthaginian, is an extinct variety of the Phoenician language, a Canaanite language of the Northwest Semitic branch of the Semitic languages. An offshoot of the Phoenician language of coastal West Asia (modern Lebanon and north western Syria), it was principally spoken on the Mediterranean coast of Northwest Africa, the Iberian Peninsula and several Mediterranean islands, such as Malta, Sicily, and Sardinia by the Punic people, or western Phoenicians, throughout classical antiquity, from the 8th century BC to the 6th century AD.

History

Early history

Punic is considered to have gradually separated from its Phoenician parent around the time that Carthage became the leading Phoenician city under Mago I, but scholarly attempts to delineate the dialects lack precision and generally disagree on the classification.

The Punics stayed in contact with the homeland of Phoenicia until the destruction of Carthage by the Roman Republic in 146 BC. At first, there was not much difference between Phoenician and Punic. Developments in the language before 146 BC are largely hidden from us by the adherence of Carthaginian scribes to a traditional Phoenician orthography, but there are occasional hints that the phonology and grammar of Punic had begun to diverge from Phoenician after the sixth century BC. The clearest evidence for this comes from Motya in western Sicily, but there are also traces of it in sixth-century Carthaginian inscriptions and it is unclear whether these developments began in western Sicily and spread to Africa or vice versa. From the fifth-century BC, a shared set of alphabetic, orthographic, and phonological rules are encountered in Punic inscriptions throughout the western Mediterranean, probably due to Carthaginian influence.

Punic literary works were written in the period before 146 BC. For example, Mago wrote 28 volumes about animal husbandry. The Roman Senate appreciated the works so much that after taking Carthage, they presented them to Berber princes who owned libraries there. Mago's work was translated into Greek by Cassius Dionysius of Utica. A Latin version was probably translated from the Greek version. Further examples of Punic works of literature include the works of Hanno the Navigator, who wrote about his encounters during his naval voyages around what is today Africa and about the settling of new colonies in Iberia, North Africa, and the Mediterranean.

Neo-Punic

Neo-Punic refers to the dialect of Punic spoken after the fall of Carthage and after the Roman conquest of the former Punic territories in 146 BC. The dialect differed from the earlier Punic language, as is evident from divergent spelling compared to earlier Punic and by the use of non-Semitic names, mostly of Libyco-Berber or Iberian origin. The difference was due to the dialectal changes that Punic underwent as it spread among the northern Berber peoples. Sallust (86 – 34 BC) claims Punic was "altered by their intermarriages with the Numidians". That account agrees with other evidence found to suggest a North African Berber influence on Punic, such as Libyco-Berber names in the ''Onomasticon'' of Eusebius. Neo-Punic is mostly known from inscriptions, including ''Lepcis Magna N 19'' (= ''KAI'' 124; 92 AD).

Around the fourth century AD, Punic was still spoken in what is now northern parts of Tunisia and Algeria, other parts of Northwest Africa, and the Mediterranean. A version of Punic, known as ''Latino-Punic'' was written in the Latin alphabet and is known from seventy texts. These texts include the 1st-century ''Zliten LP1'' and the second century ''Lepcis Magna LP1''. They were even written as late as the 4th century, ''Bir ed-Dreder LP2''. Augustine of Hippo (d. 430) is generally considered the last major ancient writer to have some knowledge of Punic and is considered the "primary source on the survival of atePunic". According to him, Punic was still spoken in his region (Northern Africa) in the 5th century, centuries after the fall of Carthage, and there were still people who called themselves "chanani" ("Canaanite") at that time. He wrote around 401:

Besides Augustine, the only proof of Punic-speaking communities at such a late period is a series of trilingual funerary texts found in the Christian catacombs of Sirte, Libya: the gravestones are carved in Ancient Greek, Latin and Punic. It might have even survived the Muslim conquest of the Maghreb, as the geographer al-Bakri describes a people speaking a language that was not Berber, Latin or Coptic in Sirte, where spoken Punic survived well past written use. However, it is likely that Arabization of Punic speakers was facilitated by their language belonging to the same group (both were Semitic languages) as that of the conquerors and so they had many grammatical and lexical similarities.

Legacy

The idea that Punic was the origin of Maltese was first raised in 1565. Modern linguistics has proved that Maltese is in fact derived from Arabic, probably Siculo-Arabic specifically, with a large number of loanwords from Italian. However, Punic was indeed spoken on the island of Malta at some point in its history, as evidenced by both the Cippi of Melqart, which is integral to the decipherment of Punic after its extinction, and other inscriptions that were found on the islands. Punic itself, being Canaanite, was more similar to Modern Hebrew than to Arabic.

Today there are a number of common Berber roots that descend from Punic, including the word for "learn" (''*almid'', ''*yulmad''; compare Hebrew למד).

Description

Punic is known from inscriptions (most of them religious formulae) and personal name evidence. The play ''Poenulus'' by Plautus contains a few lines of vernacular Punic which have been subject to some research because unlike inscriptions, they largely preserve the vowels.

Like its Phoenician parent, Punic was written from right to left, in horizontal lines, without vowels.

Phonology

Punic has 22 consonants. Details of their pronunciation can be reconstructed from Punic and Neo-Punic texts written in Latin or Greek characters (inscriptions, and parts of Plautus's comedy ''Poenulus'', 'The Little Punic').

Table of consonant phonemes

Vowels

The vowels in Punic and Neo-Punic are: short ''a, i,'' and ''u''; their long counterparts ''ā, ī,'' and ''ū''; and ''ē'' and ''ō'', which had developed out of the diphthongs ''ay'' and ''aw'', respectively (for example Punic ''mēm'', 'water', corresponds to Hebrew ''mayim'').

Two vowel changes are noteworthy. In many cases a stressed long ''ā'' developed into /''o''/, for example in the third person masculine singular of the suffixing conjugation of the verb, ''baròk'', 'he has blessed' (compare Hebrew ''baràk''). And in some cases that /''o''/ secondarily developed into ''ū'', for example ''mū'', 'what?', < ''mō'' < ''mā'' (cf. Hebrew ''māh'', 'what?').

In late Punic and Neo-Punic the glottal stop and pharyngeal and laryngeal consonants were no longer pronounced. The signs’'', ‘, h,'' and ''ḥ'' thus became available to indicate vowels. The ‘ayn (''‘'') came to be regularly used to indicate an /''a''/ sound, and also ''y'' and ''w'' increasingly were used to indicate /''i''/ and /''o, u''/, respectively. But a consistent system to write vowels never developed.

Grammar

In this section "Grammar" the notation ''"XX (xxxx)"'' is used, where ''XX'' is the spelling in Punic characters (without vowels), while ''xxxx'' is a phonetic rendering, including vowels, as can be reconstructed from Punic language texts written in the Latin or Greek alphabets.

Nouns

Nouns, including adjectives, in Punic and Neo-Punic can be of two genders (masculine or feminine), three numbers (singular, dual, or plural), and in two 'states', the absolute state or the so-called construct state. A word in the construct state has a close relation with the word that follows, a relation that is often translated by "of". For example, in the combination "sons of Hanno", "sons of" would be in the construct state, while "Hanno" would be in the absolute state.

Morphology:

Pronouns

Demonstrative pronoun

The demonstrative pronoun 'this, these' was:

= Definite article

=
The definite article was evolving from Phoenician ''ha-'' to an unaspirated article ''a-''. By 406 BCE, both variants were attested in the same inscription ( CIS I 5510). Although in later times the ''h-'' was no longer pronounced, the "historical" spelling ''H-'' kept being used, in addition to ''’-'' and Ø-, and one even finds ''Ḥ-''.

Personal pronoun

The personal pronouns, when used on their own, are: (forms between ..are attested in Phoenician only)

When used as a direct or indirect object ('me, him', 'to me, to him') or as a possessive ('mine, his') the personal pronoun takes the form of a suffix. These suffixes can be combined with verbal forms, substantives, and paricles.

Examples:
: '' ḤN (ḥan)'' = (verb:) 'he has shown favor' →
:: '' ḤN’ (ḥannō)'' = 'he has shown favor to him (-ō)' = proper name Hanno
:: '' ḤNYB‘L (ḥannī ba‘al)'' = (verb:) 'Ba‘al has shown favor to me (-ī)' = proper name Hannibal

: '' BN (bin)'' = 'son' →
:: '' BN’, BNY (binō)'' = 'his son'

: '' ’T (’et)'' = 'with' (preposition) →
:: '' ’TY (’ittī)'' = 'together with me'

The paradigm for the suffixed personal pronouns is:

Relative pronoun

The relative pronoun, 'who, that, which', in both Punic and Neo-Punic is’ ''Š (’īs''). In late Neo-Punic ''M’'' (''mū'') (originally an interrogative pronoun, 'what?') emerged as a second relative pronoun. Both pronouns were not inflected. The combination ''’Š M’'' (''’īs mū'') was also used in late Neo-Punic.

Determinative pronoun

A pronoun ''Š- (si-'') was used to express an indirect genitival relationship between two substantives; it can be translated as 'of'. This uninflected pronoun was prefixed to the second of the two substantives. Example:
: ''HKHNT ŠRBTN'' (''ha-kohènet si-Rabat-ēn''), 'the priestess of our Lady'

Interrogative pronoun

There are two interrogative pronouns:
: '' MY (mī)'', 'who?' (cf. Hebrew ''mī'')
: '' M’ (mū)'', 'what?' (cf. Hebrew ''māh''). In Neo-Punic this pronoun is also used as a relative pronoun, 'that, which'.
Neither of the two pronouns was inflected.

Indefinite pronoun

In Punic and Neo-Punic there was no exclusive indefinite pronoun. Whenever such a pronoun might be needed, it was circumscribed by means of words like '' ’ḤD (’ḥḥad)'', 'one', '' ’Š (’īs)'' or '' ’DM (’adom)'', 'a man, a person', or '' KL (kil)'', 'all'.

Verbs

Morphology

The nucleus of Punic and Neo-Punic verbs is a "root" consisting of three or, sometimes, two consonants. By adding prefixes and suffixes, and by varying the vowels that are inserted into the root, the various forms of the verb are formed. These belong to six "stems" (conjugations). The basic, and most common, stem type is the Qal. The other common stems are:
* Niph‘al (the usual passive stem);
* Pi‘el (a so-called intensive stem);
* Yiph‘il (a causative stem; corresponds to the Hiph‘il stem in Hebrew).
A few other stems are found only very rarely:
* Qal Passive;
* Pu‘al (passive of the Pi‘el stem);
* Yitpe‘el (reflexive variant of the Pi‘el; Hebrew Hitpa‘el).

= Qal

=
The paradigm of the Qal is (the verb ''B-R-K'' (''barok''), 'to bless', is used as an example):
: (note 1:) “the verb ''barok''”: ''barok'' literally means 'he blesses', it is tradition to consider the 3rd person masculine suffixing form as the standard form of the Punic verb;
: (note 2:) Forms between ..are known from Phoenician but have not yet been attested in Punic.

= Niph‘al

=
The following Niph‘al forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' P-‘-L, fel'', 'to make'; < Phoenician ''pa‘ol''):

= Pi‘el

=
The following Pi‘el forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' Ḥ-D-Š, ḥados'', 'to make new, to restore'):

= Yiph‘il

=
The following Yiph‘il forms are attested in Punic and Neo-Punic (verb: '' Q-D-Š, qados'', 'to dedicate'):

= Weak verbs

=
Many (Neo-)Punic verbs are "weak": depending on the specific root consonants certain deviations of the standard verbal paradigm occur. For example in the group I-''n'' (verbs with first consonant ''N-'') the ''n'' may disappear through assimilation. Summary:

Form and use

In Punic there was no one-on-one correlation between form and use. For example, the suffix form (perfect) is often translated by a present tense, but it may also refer to the past or future. Tense, aspect, and mood of verbal forms were determined by syntax, not by morphology.

The tense, aspect and mood of a given verbal form may depend on:
# whether the form is part of the main clause, or of a subordinate clause;
# if in a subordinate clause, it may depend on the ''type'' of subordinate clause (for example, conditional, or temporal);
# word order may be important: does the verbal form precede or follow the subject of the clause?;
# it also may depend on a verbal form earlier in the same clause: suffix forms or an infinitive absolute used consecutive to another verbal form, take the same tense, aspect and mood as the preceding form.

Numbers

The numbers from one to ten are:

Punic and Neo-Punic take part in the so-called "Semitic polarity": the numbers 3-10 take the feminine form with masculine nouns, and vice versa. Thus with masculine ''BN'' (''bin'', 'son') or ''YM'' (''yom'', 'day'), numbers take the feminine form ending in ''-T'', while with feminine ''ŠT'' (''sat'', 'year'), they take the masculine form without ''-T''. For example:
: ''‛W’ Š‛NT ‛SR WŠ‛LŠ (ḥawa’ sanūt ‛asar w-salūs):''
:: 'He lived (verb ''Ḥ-W-Y'', 'to live') thirteen years' ( KAI 144)

Multiples of ten take the form of a plural (''-īm'') of the word for 10 or 3-9:

One hundred is ''M’T'' (''mīt''), its dual ''M’TM'' (''mitēm'') is 200; 1000 is ''’LP'' (''’èlef''), and 10,000 is ''RB’'' (''ribō'').

Particles

An important particle is the so-called ''nota objecti'', or accusative particle, '' ’YT (’et)'' (rarely '' ’T;'' usually'' T- '' before a substantive with definite article or with demonstrative pronoun). It is placed before a substantive and indicates that that substantive is an object in the sentence (mostly a direct object).

Syntax

Word order in Punic and Neo-Punic can vary, but this variation has its grammatical limits. For example, in a clause with an imperfect prefixing form the subject can either precede or follow the verb. However, as a rule, if the verb precedes it refers to the present, while if the subject precedes, the verb refers to the future.

The repertoire of possible ways in (Neo-)Punic to express a certain combination of tense, aspect, and mood seems to be more restricted than in Phoenician, but at the same time the rules seem to have become less strict.

Example

Act V of Plautus's comedy ''Poenulus'' opens with Hanno speaking in Punic, his native language, in the first ten lines. Then follows a slightly different version of the same lines. Charles Krahmalkov is of the opinion that the first ten lines are Neo-Punic, the next ten Punic.

Krahmalkov proposed the theory that Plautus, who often translated Greek comedies into Latin, in this case too reworked a Greek original, the ''Karkhedonios'' ('The Carthaginian'; Athenian comic poet Alexis wrote a play with this title). In this case, there probably also existed a Punic translation of the Greek comedy, and Plautus took parts of this Punic version to give his Carthaginian character authentic speech. Moreover, in this way he could enter puns by introducing in his play would-be translators who, to comical effect, claimed to, but did not in fact, understand Punic, and thus gave nonsensical 'translations'.

Hanno's Punic speech

Plautus (or a later redactor) next provided a Latin translation of the preceding lines:

Latin and English translation

Comments

As a Latin transliteration, the text as recorded necessarily departs from the original Punic speech. Lines 930-939 have only survived in one manuscript, the "Ambrosianus" A (the "Ambrosian Palimpsest"). The "unknown" text, lines 940-949, has also survived in three manuscripts of the Palatine family (P). The several manuscript sources show many differences among them, with the P scripts showing some words being split out and some mis-interpretations. The "unknown" text used here is from the Ambrosianus A; both families have lost small chunks of text over time. Recently efforts have been made to, among other things, fill in the redactions in the "unknown language" part and to properly split the morphemes. The close mirroring between lines 930-931/940 and lines 937/947 (underlined above) suggests that the "unknown language" text (lines 940-949) is also Punic. Gratwick and Krahmalkov conclude that the more corrupted "unknown" form (940-949) is earlier (basically Plautus's own text in Punic), while lines 930-939 reflect a “late 'scholar's repair'” from Late Antiquity in Neo-Punic.

Some Punic phrases known in the text include:
* 930/940: ''Yth alonim ualoniuth sicorathii (sthymhimi) hymacom syth'' = ''’T ’LNM W-’LNT ZKRT (Š-QRYT?;'' 40:''ŠTMḤW?) H-MQM ST''.
:: - ''yth = ’et'', accusative particle (nota objecti): indicates that an object follows (cf. Hebrew'' ’et'')
:: - ''alonim = ’alonīm'': plural masculine of'' ’alōn'': 'gods' (cf. Hebrew'' ’elō^ah'', 'god, goddess', plural'' ’elohîm''); = Latin ''deōs''; cf. ''alonim'' in 933 ~ ''di'' ('gods') in 953
:: - ''u- = w-'', 'and' (Hebrew ''w-''); = Latin ''-que''
:: - ''aloniuth = ’alonōt'': plural feminine of'' ’alōn'': 'goddesses (of)'; = Latin ''deās''
:: - ''sicorathi'': corresponds with Hebrew ''zakàrti'', 'I have been mindful of, I remember, I keep holy'; = Latin ''veneror'' (note: ''s'' in ''sicorathi'' ~ ''z'' in ''zakàrti'': in late Punic the four Phoenician sibilants, ''s, š, ș,'' and ''z'', were all pronounced /s/); also interpreted as ''si-qart'', '(of) this city', but that is less probable because then a verb is missing in the sentence, and it would make ''hymacom syth'', 'this city', superfluous.
:: - ''hymacom: ha-maqōm'', definite article + 'place, city' (Hebrew ''hammaqōm''); = Latin ''urbem'' ('city'). Note: variant ''symacom syth'' (line 930) = ''šè + maqōm syth'', 'of this city'. ''mucom'' in 948 is also ''maqōm''.
:: - ''syth'': demonstrative pronoun 'this', singular feminine (Hebrew: ''zōt'') or masculine (Hebrew: ''zèh'') = Latin ''hanc'' (in Hebrew ''maqōm'', 'place, city', usually is a masculine word, but occasionally it can be feminine). In 940P ''esse'' is the Plautine Punic spelling, 930 and 940A have the late Neo-Punic spelling ''syth''.
* 937/947: ''yth emanethi hy chirs aelichot'' / ''sitt esed anec naso ters ahelicot'' = ''’T-M ’NKY H’ ḤRŠ (YŠ) H-HLYKT / Š-’TY ’Z ’NK NŠ’ ḤRŠ H-HLYKT''.
:: - ''yth = ’et'': probably the accusative particle again, here indicating an indirect object ('for', 'to'; = Latin ''ad''); or it may be the preposition ''’et'', 'with' (cf. Latin ''mecum'', 'with me')
:: - ''esed = zdè'': demonstrative pronoun, singular masculine, 'this, this one' (Hebrew: ''zèh''); = Latin ''eum'' ('him'). In 947P ''ese'' the original Plautine Punic spelling has been preserved.
:: - ''anec'': personal pronoun 1st person, 'I, I myself' (Hebrew ''anoki'') (''emanethi'' in 937 is a corrupt spelling, read ''(-em) anethi'', with ''ch'' misread as ''th'', and ''anechi'' = 'I, I myself')
:: - ''naso = našō’'': infinitive absolute of the verb ''N-Š-’'', 'to carry, bring': 'I bring' (Hebrew ''N-Ś-’'', 'to lift, bear, carry'); = Latin ''fero'', 'I bring' (in Punic an infinitive absolute, if consecutive to the main verb, represents the same tense, aspect, person, number and gender as the main verb, in this case a first person singular, cf. ''anec'')Krahmalkov (2014), p. 210.
:: - ''chirs / (ters)'': substantive, construct state, 'potsherd of' (Hebrew ''ḥèreś'', 'pottery, potsherd'); = Latin ''tesseram'', 'tile'
:: - ''aelichot / ahelicot'' = ''ha-helikōt'': definite article + substantive plural, 'the hospitality, the guest-friendship' (cf. Hebrew ''hēlèk'', 'visitor'); = Latin ''hospitalem'' (a «''tessera hospitalis''» was an object a guest presented to be recognized)
* ''duber, dubyr'' in 936, 946, 948: Semitic root ''D-B-R'', 'to speak, word'
* ''fel'', 'he did' (935), ''li-ful'' (935) and ''lu-ful'' (945), 'to do' (infinitive construct): Semitic root ''P-‘-L'', 'to make, to do'.

References

Further reading

*
*Hoftijzer, Jacob, and Karel Jongeling. 1985. ''Dictionary of the north-west Semitic inscriptions.'' With appendices by R. C. Steiner, A. Mosak-Moshavi, and B. Porten. 2 vols. Handbuch der Orienatlistik, Erste Abteilung: Der Nahe und Mittlere Osten 2. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
*Jongeling, K. 2008. ''Handbook of Neo-Punic Inscriptions.'' Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
*Jongeling, K., and Robert M Kerr. 2005. ''Late Punic Epigraphy: An Introduction to the Study of Neo-Punic and Latino-Punic Inscriptions.'' Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
*Kerr, Robert M. 2010. ''Latino-Punic Epigraphy: A Descriptive Study of the Inscriptions.'' Tübingen: Mohr Siebeck.
*Krahmalkov, Charles. 1970. "Studies in Phoenician and Punic Grammar." ''Journal of Semitic Studies'' 15, no.2: 181–88.
*--. 2000. ''Phoenician-Punic dictionary.'' Studia Phoenicia 15. Leuven, Belgium: Peeters.
*--. 2001. ''A Phoenician-Punic grammar.'' Handbook of Oriental Studies: Section One, the Near East and the Middle East 54. Leiden, The Netherlands: Brill.
*Schmitz, Philip C. "Phoenician-Punic Grammar and Lexicography in the New Millennium." ''Journal of the American Oriental Society'' 124, no. 3 (2004): 533-47. doi:10.2307/4132279.
*Segert, Stanislav. 1976. ''A Grammar of Phoenician and Punic.'' München: C.H. Beck.
*--. 2003. "Phoenician-punic: Grammar and dictionary." ''Archiv Orientální'' 71. no. 4: 551–56.
*Tomback, Richard S. 1978. ''A comparative Semitic lexicon of the Phoenician and Punic languages.'' Missoula, MT: Scholars.

External links

Punic alphabet on Omniglot.com

{{DEFAULTSORT:Punic Language

Extinct languages of Africa
Extinct languages of Europe
Phoenician language
Canaanite languages
Carthage
Languages attested from the 8th century BC
Languages extinct in the 5th century
Languages of Sicily