Proto-Armenian language

Proto-Armenian is the earlier, unattested stage of the Armenian language which has been reconstructed by linguists. As Armenian is the only known language of its branch of the Indo-European languages, the comparative method cannot be used to reconstruct its earlier stages. Instead, a combination of internal and external reconstruction, by reconstructions of Proto-Indo-European and other branches, has allowed linguists to piece together the earlier history of Armenian.

Definition

Proto-Armenian, as the ancestor of only one living language, has no clear definition of the term. It is generally held to include a variety of ancestral stages of Armenian between Proto-Indo-European and the earliest attestations of Classical Armenian.

It is thus not a proto-language in the strict sense, but "Proto-Armenian" is a term that has become common in the field.

The earliest attestation of Armenian is the 5th-century Bible translation of Mesrop Mashtots. The earlier history of the language is unclear and the subject of much speculation. It is clear that Armenian is an Indo-European language, but its development is opaque.

In any case, Armenian has many layers of loanwords and shows traces of long language contact with Anatolian languages such as Luwian and Hittite, Hattic, Hurro-Urartian languages, Semitic languages such as Akkadian and Aramaic, and Iranian languages such as Persian and Parthian. Armenian also has been influenced to a lesser extent by Greek and Arabic.

Phonological development of Proto-Armenian

The Proto-Armenian sound changes are varied and eccentric (such as ''*dw-'' yielding ''erk-'') and, in many cases, uncertain. That prevented Armenian from being immediately recognized as an Indo-European branch in its own right, and it was assumed to be simply a very divergent Iranian language until Heinrich Hübschmann established its independent character in 1874.

The development of voicing contrasts in Armenian is notable in being quite similar to that seen in Germanic, a fact that was significant in the formation of the Glottalic Theory. The ''Armenian Consonant Shift'' has often been compared to the famous Grimm's Law in Germanic, because in both cases, Proto-Indo-European voiceless stops became voiceless aspirates (with some complications with regard to Proto-Indo-European *p), the voiced stops became voiceless, and the voiced aspirates became voiced stops. Meanwhile, Armenian shares the vocalization of word initial laryngeals before consonants with Greek and Phrygian: Proto-Indo-European '' *h₂nḗr'' ("man", "force") renders Greek ''anḗr'', Armenian ''ayr'' from a Proto-Armenian ''*aynr'' and Phrygian ''anar'' ("man"), which may be compared to Latin ''Nero'' and ''neriōsus'' ("strict"), Albanian ''njeri'', Persian ''nar'', Sanskrit ''nara'', and Welsh ''nerth''.

In certain contexts, the aspirated stops are further reduced to ''w'', ''h'' or zero in Armenian: Proto-Indo-European (accusative) '' *pódm̥'' "foot" > Armenian ոտն '' otn'' vs. Greek (accusative) ''póda'', Proto-Indo-European ''* tréyes'' "three" > Armenian '' երեք erekʿ'' vs. Greek ''treis''.

History

The origin of the Proto-Armenian language is subject to scholarly debate. The Armenian hypothesis would postulate the Armenian language as an ''in situ'' development of a 3rd millennium BC Proto-Indo-European language, while the Kurgan hypothesis suggests it arrived in the Armenian Highlands either from the Balkans or through the Caucasus. The arrival of such a population who spoke Proto-Armenian in the Armenian Highlands is assumed to have occurred sometime during the Bronze AgeRobert Drews. ''Militarism and the Indo-Europeanizing of Europe''. Routledge. 2017. p. 228., quote="The vernacular of the Great Kingdom of Biainili was quite certainly Armenian. The Armenian language was obviously the region's vernacular in the fifth century BC, when Persian commanders and Greek writers paired it with Phrygian. That it as brought into the region between the early sixth and the early fifth century BC, and that it immediately obliterated whatever else had been spoken there, can hardly be supposed; ..Because Proto-Armenian speakers seem to have lived not far from Hurrian speakers our conclusion must be that the Armenian language of Mesrop Mashtots was descended from an Indo-European language that had been spoken in southern Caucasia in the Bronze Age." or at the latest, during the Bronze Age Collapse around 1200 BC, according to this theory.Greppin, John A.C. and Igor Diakonoff ''Some Effects of the Hurro-Urartian People and Their Languages upon the Earliest Armenians'', Oct–Dec 1991, pp. 72

/ref>

One of the theories about the emergence of Armenian in the region is that Paleo-Balkan languages, Paleo-Balkan-speaking settlers related to Phrygians (the Mushki or the retroactively named Armeno-Phrygians), who had already settled in the western parts of the region before the Kingdom of Van was established in Urartu, Katvalyan, M. and Karo Ghafadaryan. ''Ուրարտու'' rartu Armenian Soviet Encyclopedia. Yerevan: Armenian Academy of Sciences, 1986, vol. 12, pp. 276–283. had become the ruling elite under the Median Empire, followed by the Achaemenid Empire. The existence of Urartian words in the Armenian language and Armenian loanwords into Urartian suggests early contact between the two languages and long periods of bilingualism.

According to the '' Encyclopedia of Indo-European Culture'':

Findings in Armenian genetics from 2019 reveal heavy mixing of groups from the 3000s BC until the Bronze Age Collapse. Admixture signals seem to have decreased to insignificant levels after c. 1200 BC, after which Armenian DNA remained stable, which appears to have been caused by Armenians' isolation from their surroundings, and subsequently sustained by the cultural, linguistic and religious distinctiveness that persists until today. The connection between the Mushki and Armenians is unclear as nothing is known of the Mushki language. Most modern scholars have rejected a direct linguistic relationship with Proto-Armenian if the Mushki were Thracians or Phrygians. Additionally, recent findings in genetic research does not support significant admixture into the Armenian nation after 1200 BC, making the Mushki, if they indeed migrated from a Balkan or western Anatolian homeland during or after the Bronze Age Collapse, unlikely candidates for the Proto-Armenians.

However, as others have placed (at least the Eastern) Mushki homeland in the Armenian Highlands and South Caucasus region, it is possible that at least some of the Mushki were Armenian-speakers or speakers of a closely related language.''The Mushki Problem Reconsidered''
/ref> Some modern studies show that Armenian is as close to Indo-Iranian as it is to Greek and Phrygian.

An alternate theory suggests that speakers of Proto-Armenian were tribes indigenous to the northern Armenian highlands, such as the Hayasans, Diauehi or Etiuni. Although these groups are only known from references left by neighboring peoples (such as Hittites, Urartians, and Assyrians), Armenian etymologies have been proposed for their names. While the Urartian language was used by the royal elite, the population they ruled was likely multi-lingual, and some of these peoples would have spoken Armenian. This can be reconciled with the Phrygian/Mushki theory if those groups originally came from the Caucasus region or Armenian Highlands.

Recent genetic research has found Proto-Indo-European-speaking tribes migrated from north to south across the Caucasus during the third millennium BCE; it is speculated that their dialect may have been Proto-Armenian. They can perhaps be linked to the Trialeti–Vanadzor culture.

This new research has also suggested that Armenian, along with Greek and Albanian, are connected to the Yamnaya culture of the Pontic–Caspian steppe and Caucasus, whereas all other existent branches of Indo-European were mediated through the Corded Ware culture.

See also

* Armenian hypothesis
* Graeco-Armenian
* Armeno-Aryan
* Armeno-Phrygian languages
* Origin of the Armenians
* Name of Armenia

References

Sources

* Adjarian, Hrachia. ''Etymological root dictionary of the Armenian language'', vol. I–IV. Yerevan State University, Yerevan, 1971 – 1979.
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*K. H. Schmidt, The Indo-European Basis of Proto-Armenian : Principles of Reconstruction, Annual of Armenian linguistics, Cleveland State University, 11, 33-47, 1990.
*Werner Winter, Problems of Armenian Phonology I, Language 30, No. 2 (Apr., 1954), pp. 197–201
*Werner Winter, Problems of Armenian Phonology II, Language 31, No. 1 (Jan., 1955), pp. 4–8
*Werner Winter Problems of Armenian Phonology III, Language 38, No. 3, Part 1 (Jul., 1962), pp. 254–262

External links

Indo-European family tree, showing Indo-European languages and sub branchesImage of Indo-European migrations from the Armenian Highlands

{{Armenian language, state=expanded

Armenian
Armenian languages
Languages of ancient Anatolia