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''Problems of Everyday Life: Creating the Foundations for A New Society in Revolutionary Russia'' or Problems of Every Day Life: And Other Writings on Culture and Science are a selection of articles and party speeches by Russian revolutionary
Leon Trotsky Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,; ; also transliterated ''Lyev'', ''Trotski'', ''Trockij'' and ''Trotzky'' was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and political theorist. He was a key figure ...
on a variety of
cultural Culture ( ) is a concept that encompasses the social behavior, institutions, and Social norm, norms found in human societies, as well as the knowledge, beliefs, arts, laws, Social norm, customs, capabilities, Attitude (psychology), attitudes ...
and
scientific Science is a systematic discipline that builds and organises knowledge in the form of testable hypotheses and predictions about the universe. Modern science is typically divided into twoor threemajor branches: the natural sciences, which stu ...
matters. These collections documented his perspective from the closing interlude of the
Civil War A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
in 1923 until his final years in exile in
Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...
from 1937-1940. In these writings, Trotsky presented his views on a number of cultural areas which relate to
aesthetic Aesthetics (also spelled esthetics) is the branch of philosophy concerned with the nature of beauty and taste, which in a broad sense incorporates the philosophy of art.Slater, B. H.Aesthetics ''Internet Encyclopedia of Philosophy,'' , acces ...
art Art is a diverse range of cultural activity centered around ''works'' utilizing creative or imaginative talents, which are expected to evoke a worthwhile experience, generally through an expression of emotional power, conceptual ideas, tec ...
, civility in public life, the emancipation of
women A woman is an adult female human. Before adulthood, a female child or adolescent is referred to as a girl. Typically, women are of the female sex and inherit a pair of X chromosomes, one from each parent, and women with functional u ...
, universal education,
science and technology Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of ...
and
dialectical materialism Dialectical materialism is a materialist theory based upon the writings of Karl Marx and Friedrich Engels that has found widespread applications in a variety of philosophical disciplines ranging from philosophy of history to philosophy of scien ...
. In the interregnum period following the Russian Civil War, Trotsky diverted his personal attention towards cultural matters as a foundational element of
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
reconstruction Reconstruction may refer to: Politics, history, and sociology *Reconstruction (law), the transfer of a company's (or several companies') business to a new company *''Perestroika'' (Russian for "reconstruction"), a late 20th century Soviet Union ...
.


Historical Background

Throughout the 1920s, Trotsky would evaluate the challenges such as widespread
illiteracy Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
, regressive customs and the early cultural advancements of the
October Revolution The October Revolution, also known as the Great October Socialist Revolution (in Historiography in the Soviet Union, Soviet historiography), October coup, Bolshevik coup, or Bolshevik revolution, was the second of Russian Revolution, two r ...
. This was associated with universal education,
healthcare Health care, or healthcare, is the improvement or maintenance of health via the preventive healthcare, prevention, diagnosis, therapy, treatment, wikt:amelioration, amelioration or cure of disease, illness, injury, and other disability, physic ...
, women’s rights and the ideological prioritisation of
science and technology Science, technology, engineering, and mathematics (STEM) is an umbrella term used to group together the distinct but related technical disciplines of science, technology, engineering, and mathematics. The term is typically used in the context of ...
. Trotsky had completed his book '' Literature and Revolution'' in 1924 for which he expounded his views on literature trends, artistic autonomy and the expected role of the Bolshevik party. Following discussions with other party associates in Moscow, he issued a series of articles for
Pravda ''Pravda'' ( rus, Правда, p=ˈpravdə, a=Ru-правда.ogg, 'Truth') is a Russian broadsheet newspaper, and was the official newspaper of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union, when it was one of the most in ...
that examined other cultural elements of Soviet life such as public manners and morals. These articles were formalised and published under the title ''“Problems of Everyday Life”''. As Trotsky became increasingly marginalised during his factional struggle with
Joseph Stalin Joseph Vissarionovich Stalin (born Dzhugashvili; 5 March 1953) was a Soviet politician and revolutionary who led the Soviet Union from 1924 until Death and state funeral of Joseph Stalin, his death in 1953. He held power as General Secret ...
, he continued to expand the scope of his cultural writings on scientific matters as a member of the Board for Electrotechnical Development and the Committee for Industry and Technology. In particular, he outlined his views on Ivan Pavlov’s theory of conditioning, the use of the
radio Radio is the technology of communicating using radio waves. Radio waves are electromagnetic waves of frequency between 3  hertz (Hz) and 300  gigahertz (GHz). They are generated by an electronic device called a transmitter connec ...
,
chemistry Chemistry is the scientific study of the properties and behavior of matter. It is a physical science within the natural sciences that studies the chemical elements that make up matter and chemical compound, compounds made of atoms, molecules a ...
and hydro-dynamics in alignment with Soviet development and
scientific socialism Scientific socialism in Marxism is the application of historical materialism to the development of socialism, as not just a practical and achievable outcome of historical processes, but the only possible outcome. It contrasts with utopian social ...
through a series of party addresses between 1925 and 1926. In the final years of his exile, Trotsky examined the role of art and
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
in relation to the Leninist party and dialectical materialism. He continued to express strong criticisms of Stalin’s leadership for which he characterised as
totalitarian Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sph ...
and
bureaucratic Bureaucracy ( ) is a system of organization where laws or regulatory authority are implemented by civil servants or non-elected officials (most of the time). Historically, a bureaucracy was a government administration managed by departments ...
, with several
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
practices having been reintroduced under Stalin including legal restrictions of female rights, stratified notions of family roles and the prohibition of
abortion Abortion is the early termination of a pregnancy by removal or expulsion of an embryo or fetus. Abortions that occur without intervention are known as miscarriages or "spontaneous abortions", and occur in roughly 30–40% of all pregnan ...
.


Overview


Part 1: Problems of everyday life

In the view of
political scientist Political science is the scientific study of politics. It is a social science dealing with systems of governance and Power (social and political), power, and the analysis of political activities, political philosophy, political thought, polit ...
Baruch Knei-Paz, Trotsky ascribed the task of the Soviet state in 1923 to gradually nurturing the conditions for a new socialist culture as an expression of material developments rather than hastily constructing a “ new man” detached from his social context. Instead, Trotsky believed it was necessary to induce younger party members and through
education Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills and the development of character traits. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a curriculum. Non-formal education als ...
in general the appropriate appreciation of everyday politics and participation. Trotsky placed considerable weight on mass cultural habits and customs such as abusive language and swearing for which he rooted in the
Tsarist Tsarist autocracy (), also called Tsarism, was an autocracy, a form of absolute monarchy in the Grand Duchy of Moscow and its successor states, the Tsardom of Russia and the Russian Empire. In it, the Tsar possessed in principle authority and ...
bureaucratic and
hierarchical A hierarchy (from Greek: , from , 'president of sacred rites') is an arrangement of items (objects, names, values, categories, etc.) that are represented as being "above", "below", or "at the same level as" one another. Hierarchy is an importan ...
tradition. According to Trotsky, common civilians were subject to disdain,
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
and humiliation for human dignity which became embedded in cultural life. Trotsky viewed the October Revolution to have an emancipatory impact and argued for the necessity of civility, good manners as essential aspects of society. Another area of focus in Trotsky’s writings was the role of women and the traditional family unit. Trotsky approached the subject matter with a focus on completing sexual equality in which women were emancipated from traditional duties and became an active agent in political life. At the same time, Trotsky cautioned that this pace of change depended on the economic foundations and the degree to which traditional female duties had been supplanted by
public institutions In public relations and communication science, publics are groups of individual people, and the public (a.k.a. the general public) is the totality of such groupings. This is a different concept to the sociological concept of the ''Öffentlichkei ...
. Concurrently, he discussed the challenges of replacing the traditional family with a new conception of family and hence suggested that the preferred approach should be within practical and possible boundaries. Trotsky also commented on the translation of his writings for Soviet ethnic communities such as
Tatar language Tatar ( ; or ) is a Turkic languages, Turkic language spoken by the Volga Tatars mainly located in modern Tatarstan (European Russia), as well as Siberia. It should not be confused with Crimean Tatar language, Crimean Tatar or Siberian Tatar ...
and its appeal for cultural and economic underdevelopment of autonomous communities in the
East East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fact that ea ...
.


Part 2: Education and Culture

In relation to education and culture, Trotsky examined the prevalence of mass illiteracy in both the Soviet populace and
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
. He described the need for worker correspondents to raise the cultural level of the masses, abolish mass
illiteracy Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
, mitigate public alcoholism, develop the quality of article publications and express the internationalist perspectives of worker movements across the world. In this section, Trotsky surveyed the challenges of uprooting traditional practices which were irreconcilable to
rationalism In philosophy, rationalism is the Epistemology, epistemological view that "regards reason as the chief source and test of knowledge" or "the position that reason has precedence over other ways of acquiring knowledge", often in contrast to ot ...
and progress for which he associated with
institutional religion Organized religion, also known as institutional religion, is religion in which belief systems and rituals are systematically arranged and formally established, typically by an official doctrine (or dogma), a hierarchical or bureaucratic leadership ...
. Specifically, he viewed the latter to have a sedative influence on the masses and perpetuated historical residues of superstition, ignorance and apathy for mass struggle for a new society. As an alternative, Trotsky had advanced for a continued
secularisation In sociology, secularization () is a multilayered concept that generally denotes "a transition from a religious to a more worldly level." There are many types of secularization and most do not lead to atheism or irreligion, nor are they automatica ...
of social life in which other forms of cultural mediums such as
entertainment Entertainment is a form of activity that holds the attention and Interest (emotion), interest of an audience or gives pleasure and delight. It can be an idea or a task, but it is more likely to be one of the activities or events that have deve ...
, amusement and attractions could facilitate the creative development of the Soviet public. In the latter section of his book, he expressed warning on an excessive use of the state in solving cultural matters and the artificial imposition of social norms from above. Rather, he favoured the role of the state in facilitating the evolution of cultural trends in conjunction with
voluntary associations A voluntary group or union (also sometimes called a voluntary organization, common-interest association, association, or society) is a group of individuals who enter into an agreement, usually as volunteers, to form a body (or organization) to ac ...
and personal initiatives for a new
mass culture Popular culture (also called pop culture or mass culture) is generally recognized by members of a society as a set of practices, beliefs, artistic output (also known as popular art pop_art.html" ;"title="f. pop art">f. pop artor mass art, somet ...
. A notable observation in his writings on mass culture was the prospect of revolution in the
West West is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from east and is the direction in which the Sun sets on the Earth. Etymology The word "west" is a Germanic word passed into some Romance langu ...
. In this analysis, Trotsky believed that conditions for a revolution in Tsarist Russia were considerably more favourable than in Western European countries such as England due to the relative failure of capitalism to take root in Russia. In this respect, he attributed this fragile equilibrium to the recent emergence of a Russian bourgeoisie and absence of shared traditions with the Russian workers. At the same time, Trotsky argued this course of events held its own set of inherent disadvantages because of the historical backwardness of Russia and consequently made it much more difficult to inaugurate socialist construction. In parallel, Trotsky believed that as capitalism was long established in
Western Europe Western Europe is the western region of Europe. The region's extent varies depending on context. The concept of "the West" appeared in Europe in juxtaposition to "the East" and originally applied to the Western half of the ancient Mediterranean ...
, the proletariat of those societies were much more culturally acculturated with bourgeois habits and reformist traditions and hence more attached to the existing system. Consequently, this in turn made the revolutionary process in those respective countries more difficult. Nevertheless, Trotsky argued that due to the cultural and economic advantages that Western Europe had accumulated over centuries that this in turn would make the potentiality of socialist construction more achievable.


Part 3: Science and Technology

Trotsky also stated that cultural development would accentuate industrial and technical progress. He viewed both elements to be interrelated components as part of dialectical interaction in which he viewed the low level of Russian
technique Technique or techniques may refer to: Music * The Techniques, a Jamaican rocksteady vocal group of the 1960s * Technique (band), a British female synth pop band in the 1990s * ''Technique'' (album), by New Order, 1989 * ''Techniques'' (album), by ...
and
expertise An expert is somebody who has a broad and deep understanding and competence in terms of knowledge, skill and experience through practice and education in a particular field or area of study. Informally, an expert is someone widely recognized a ...
to be a function of cultural backwardness. According to Trotsky, Western industrial techniques and products such as the radio should not be rejected due to their status as a product of a capitalist system but rather absorbed into the Soviet socialist framework to facilitate new forms of techniques and cultural production. In this interpretation, the transference of techniques brought new cultural changes in terms of rationalism,
efficiency Efficiency is the often measurable ability to avoid making mistakes or wasting materials, energy, efforts, money, and time while performing a task. In a more general sense, it is the ability to do things well, successfully, and without waste. ...
, exactitude and
quality Quality may refer to: Concepts *Quality (business), the ''non-inferiority'' or ''superiority'' of something *Quality (philosophy), an attribute or a property *Quality (physics), in response theory *Energy quality, used in various science discipli ...
. Throughout the 1920s, Trotsky stressed the strong compatibility between the
philosophy of science Philosophy of science is the branch of philosophy concerned with the foundations, methods, and implications of science. Amongst its central questions are the difference between science and non-science, the reliability of scientific theories, ...
and dialectical materialism. This was most exemplified in a public speech he delivered to a scientific congress in 1925 commemorating Russian scientist, Dimitri Mendeleev, who is responsible for the conception of the
periodic table The periodic table, also known as the periodic table of the elements, is an ordered arrangement of the chemical elements into rows (" periods") and columns (" groups"). It is an icon of chemistry and is widely used in physics and other s ...
. Trotsky, whilst criticising the conservative social outlook of major scientists such as Mendeleev and
Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English Natural history#Before 1900, naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all speci ...
, believed the wider implications of their scientific theories such as the theory of evolution had in fact confirmed the notion of dialectics in which
quantitative Quantitative may refer to: * Quantitative research, scientific investigation of quantitative properties * Quantitative analysis (disambiguation) * Quantitative verse, a metrical system in poetry * Statistics, also known as quantitative analysis ...
changes resulted in pronounced qualitative changes. He next discussed the prospects of scientific research in the early Soviet Union. Trotsky weighed this favourably against earlier societies in which science was subsumed to the interests of institutional religion, capitalist warfare and personal proprietors. Comparatively, he believed that scientific disciplines such as chemistry,
physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...
and
psychology Psychology is the scientific study of mind and behavior. Its subject matter includes the behavior of humans and nonhumans, both consciousness, conscious and Unconscious mind, unconscious phenomena, and mental processes such as thoughts, feel ...
would greatly benefit from state
patronage Patronage is the support, encouragement, privilege, or financial aid that an organization or individual bestows on another. In the history of art, art patronage refers to the support that princes, popes, and other wealthy and influential people ...
and the substantial network of technical scientific institutes established under the Soviet Union at the time would represent a prelude to future possibilities. Towards the later section, Trotsky linked science in association with culture and
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
. He presented the view that there is a dialectical interaction between technology and material culture with the former serving as the basis for the latter which in turn stimulated the growth of technology. Trotsky also referenced the cultural value of public institutions such as the Leningrad Public Library due to its collection of books which had now been
nationalised Nationalization (nationalisation in British English) is the process of transforming privately owned assets into public assets by bringing them under the public ownership of a national government or state. Nationalization contrasts with ...
and made fully accessible to the Soviet populace. He continued to reiterate the importance of science for industrial development through the use of
electricity Electricity is the set of physical phenomena associated with the presence and motion of matter possessing an electric charge. Electricity is related to magnetism, both being part of the phenomenon of electromagnetism, as described by Maxwel ...
,
railway Rail transport (also known as train transport) is a means of transport using wheeled vehicles running in railway track, tracks, which usually consist of two parallel steel railway track, rails. Rail transport is one of the two primary means of ...
infrastructure Infrastructure is the set of facilities and systems that serve a country, city, or other area, and encompasses the services and facilities necessary for its economy, households and firms to function. Infrastructure is composed of public and pri ...
and socialist method of planning as well as the means of communications with innovative techniques such as
radioactivity Radioactive decay (also known as nuclear decay, radioactivity, radioactive disintegration, or nuclear disintegration) is the process by which an unstable atomic nucleus loses energy by radiation. A material containing unstable nuclei is conside ...
and
cinematography Cinematography () is the art of motion picture (and more recently, electronic video camera) photography. Cinematographers use a lens (optics), lens to focus reflected light from objects into a real image that is transferred to some image sen ...
.


Part 4: The materialist outlook

The final collection of his writings derived from his period in exile between 1937-1939. In this period, he expressed his perspective on the exact role of the Leninist party in relation to art and philosophy. Trotsky insisted that the party should maintain a wide scope of personal and creative autonomy for figures in those respective fields. Congruently, he believed the party should reconcile this with political considerations in the event some of these philosophical developments are overtly hostile to “the revolutionary tasks of the proletariat”, He also contrasted the approach of
Vladimir Lenin Vladimir Ilyich Ulyanov ( 187021 January 1924), better known as Vladimir Lenin, was a Russian revolutionary, politician and political theorist. He was the first head of government of Soviet Russia from 1917 until Death and state funeral of ...
with Stalin on the subject matter. Trotsky also advanced his notion of a curve of capitalist development with an accompanying schematic chart. Through this concept, Trotsky attempted to track the interplay between intervals of social events (
superstructure A superstructure is an upward extension of an existing structure above a baseline. This term is applied to various kinds of physical structures such as buildings, bridges, or ships. Aboard ships and large boats On water craft, the superstruct ...
) and material breaking points in the capitalist development over an industrial cycle. Trotsky reserved some criticism for Professor Nikolai’s Kondratiev statistical analysis for projecting the same trend assumptions in both major and minor industrial cycles and his conclusions requiring further verification. Trotsky then concluded his focus on the “ABC of dialectical materialism” in 1939 outlining the fundamental principles of the philosophy such as the logic of motion and its explanatory, scientific value in analysing continuous, material change through the dialectical process of quantitative and quality transformation.


Reception and evaluation

Trotsky’s writings on the ''Problem of Everyday Life'' have been credited with expanding the scope of political discourse in the
Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...
around the construction of cultural life. Professor
Alan Wald Alan Maynard Wald (born June 1, 1946) is an American professor emeritus of English Literature and American Culture at the University of Michigan, Ann Arbor, and writer of 20th-century American literature who focuses on Communist writers; he is an ...
cited the ''Problem of Everyday Life'' among several literary outputs such as ''Literature and Revolutio''n to have accentuated Trotsky’s wider appeal to groups such as the
New York Intellectuals The New York Intellectuals were a group of American writers and literary critics based in New York City in the mid-20th century. They advocated left-wing politics, being firmly anti-Stalinist. The group is known for having sought to integrate li ...
. He stated that Trotsky presented robust and distinctive views on the subject and situated culture as a primary loci of the revolution. In contrast, British historian Ian Thatcher believed his work featured a strong, condescending tone towards Russian workers. Thatcher had argued his writings had presented them disparagingly as uncultured,
illiterate Literacy is the ability to read and write, while illiteracy refers to an inability to read and write. Some researchers suggest that the study of "literacy" as a concept can be divided into two periods: the period before 1950, when literacy was ...
and
superstitious A superstition is any belief or practice considered by non-practitioners to be irrational or supernatural, attributed to fate or magic, perceived supernatural influence, or fear of that which is unknown. It is commonly applied to beliefs and p ...
. This interpretation has been a source of contention with American socialist David North, with the latter criticising Thatcher for presenting a “spiteful and dishonest of Trotsky’s writings on ''Problems of Every Day Life”'' . Conservative historian Robert Service acknowledged the book to be reflective of his strengths as a writer of distinction and past associations with the artistic
milieu The social environment, social context, sociocultural context or milieu refers to the immediate physical and social setting in which people live or in which something happens or develops. It includes the culture that the individual was educated ...
in Russia and wider Europe. More precisely, he viewed the booklet to be reflective of his voluminous writings on a range of topics including
international relations International relations (IR, and also referred to as international studies, international politics, or international affairs) is an academic discipline. In a broader sense, the study of IR, in addition to multilateral relations, concerns al ...
, terror,
Russian history The history of Russia begins with the histories of the East Slavs. The traditional start date of specifically Russian history is the establishment of the Rus' people, Rus' state in the north in the year 862, ruled by Varangians. In 882, Prin ...
and Soviet economic development which in turn confirmed his status as “one of the outstanding Marxist thinkers”.


See also

* Leon Trotsky bibliography *
List of books by Leon Trotsky The following is a chronological list of books by Leon Trotsky, a Marxist theoretician, including hardcover and paperback books and pamphlets published during his life and posthumously during the years immediately following his assassination in ...
* Literature and Revolution *
Marxist cultural analysis Marxist cultural analysis is a form of cultural analysis and anti-capitalist cultural critique, which assumes the theory of cultural hegemony and from this specifically targets those aspects of culture that are profit driven and mass-produced ...


References

{{Authority control Works by Leon Trotsky 1973 non-fiction books
Revolutions In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elemen ...
Books about the Soviet Union Books about socialism