The Presidential Republic () is the period in the
history of Chile spanning from the approval of the
1925 Constitution on 18 September 1925, under the government of
Arturo Alessandri Palma, to
the overthrow of the
Popular Unity government headed by the President
Salvador Allende on 11 September 1973. The period is concurrent with the "Inward Development" (''Desarrollo hacia adentro'') period in
Chilean economic history.
Carlos Ibáñez and Arturo Alessandri Palma
Headed by Colonel
Marmaduque Grove, left-wing troops deposed the
September Junta in the
1925 coup, and handed power to General
Pedro Dartnell as interim president, with the hope of recalling
Arturo Alessandri Palma from exile. Dartnell, however, decided to form another junta, the
January Junta, which ended with Alessandri's return on March 20, 1925. Alessandri had a new Constitution drafted, and approved in a
referendum
A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate (rather than their Representative democracy, representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either bin ...
by 134,421 voters on August 30. The Constitution, which was promulgated on September 18, 1925, reinforced presidential powers over the legislature. Furthermore, Alessandri created a
Central Bank
A central bank, reserve bank, national bank, or monetary authority is an institution that manages the monetary policy of a country or monetary union. In contrast to a commercial bank, a central bank possesses a monopoly on increasing the mo ...
, initiating the first rupture with
classical liberalism
Classical liberalism is a political tradition and a branch of liberalism that advocates free market and laissez-faire economics and civil liberties under the rule of law, with special emphasis on individual autonomy, limited governmen ...
's
laissez faire policies.
[Intervenciones militares y poder factico en la politica chilena (de 1830 al 2000)]
, Luis Vitale, 2000 (p. 38)
Alessandri's second government began with the support of left-wing and radical groups. However, this second group began to distance itself from the President. In March 1925, Alessandri's government repressed a demonstration, leading to the
Marusia massacre (500 deaths), soon followed by
La Coruña massacre on June 5, 1925.
Henceforth, Alessandri encountered opposition from his own
Minister of Defence
A ministry of defence or defense (see spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and military forces, found in states where the government is divid ...
, Colonel
Carlos Ibáñez del Campo who had also participated to the January 1925 coup and also enjoyed support from the masses. Alessandri wanted to run only one official candidate in the presidential election — himself — while Ibáñez gave his support to a
manifesto
A manifesto is a written declaration of the intentions, motives, or views of the issuer, be it an individual, group, political party, or government. A manifesto can accept a previously published opinion or public consensus, but many prominent ...
drafted from various political parties which called on him to run as a candidate. This crisis led to the cabinet's resignation.
Ibáñez then published an open letter to the President, recalling him that he could only issue
decree
A decree is a law, legal proclamation, usually issued by a head of state, judge, monarch, royal figure, or other relevant Authority, authorities, according to certain procedures. These procedures are usually defined by the constitution, Legislativ ...
through his approbation, as he was the only minister of the cabinet. Alessandri then decided to nominate
Luis Barros Borgoño as
Minister of Interior, and resigned a second time from the presidency on October 1, 1925.
This break with the working classes caused Alessandri to try to maintain a right-wing-radical alliance until 1937, when it took a turn towards the left.
Emiliano Figueroa Larraín (1925–1927)
Alessandri's resignation prompted Ibáñez to convince the parties to find a common candidacy, as required by Alessandri.
Emiliano Figueroa Larraín, the candidate of the
Liberal Democratic Party, was thus chosen as the governmental candidate, and was
elected in October 1925 with nearly 72% of the votes, defeating
José Santos Salas from the
Social Republican Worker's Union. Alessandri had been confronted by increased opposition from his popular Minister of Defence, Ibáñez. Both had struggled over the purging of the
justice apparatus, Ibáñez opposing in particular the President of the
Supreme Court
In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
,
Javier Ángel Figueroa Larraín, who was Emiliano's brother.
In February 1927, Ibáñez succeeded in being designated as Minister of Interior (who, in case of a vacancy in the presidency, would be designated
Vice President of Chile - in the Chilean context effectively the designated acting president), and in convincing President Figueroa to resign in April 1927. Ibáñez thus took his place as vice president and called for elections. He ran against communist
Elías Lafertte, and
won in May 1927 with 98% of the vote.
Carlos Ibáñez (1927–1931)
Carlos Ibáñez's administration remained popular until the outbreak of the
Great Depression
The Great Depression was a severe global economic downturn from 1929 to 1939. The period was characterized by high rates of unemployment and poverty, drastic reductions in industrial production and international trade, and widespread bank and ...
in 1931. He exercised
dictatorial powers and suspended parliamentary elections, instead naming politicians to the Senate and Chamber of Deputies himself.
Freedom of press was restricted, 200 politicians were arrested or exiled (among whom were Alessandri and his former ally
Marmaduque Grove), the
Communist Party was proscribed, and the
workers' movement repressed. Before these actions,
Congress
A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...
allowed Ibáñez to
rule by decree
Rule by decree is a style of governance allowing quick, unchallenged promulgation of law by a single person or group of people, usually without legislative approval. While intended to allow rapid responses to a crisis, rule by decree is easily ab ...
, finding support in
Minister of Finances Pablo Ramírez.
In 1929, Ibáñez requested from Chile's political parties a list of their candidates for the general elections, in order to select for himself which ones would be permitted to campaign. Ibáñez then traveled to the resort town of
Termas de Chillán, from where he selected members of both houses. The resulting legislative body which emerged from his choices became known as the “
Congreso Termal.”
Ibánez's popularity was buoyed by loans from American banks, which helped to promote a high rate of growth in the country and the launching important
public works
Public works are a broad category of infrastructure projects, financed and procured by a government body for recreational, employment, and health and safety uses in the greater community. They include public buildings ( municipal buildings, ...
projects. He ordered the construction of canals, bridges, prisons, ports, the
Palace of Cerro Castillo in
Viña del Mar
Viña del Mar (; meaning "Vineyard of the Sea") is a List of cities in Chile, city and Communes of Chile, commune on Zona Central, Chile, central Chile's Pacific coast. Often referred to as ("The Garden City"), Viña del Mar is located withi ...
, restoration of the façade of
La Moneda, and increased public spending.
Ibáñez also reformed the police in 1927, merging the Fiscal Police, the Rural Police, and the Cuerpo de Carabineros into the
Carabineros de Chile; he also appointed himself their first Director General. Ibáñez also created the
Chilean Air Force
The Chilean Air Force () is the air force of Chile and branch of the Chilean military.
History
The first step towards the current FACh is taken by Lieutenant Colonel, Teniente Coronel training as a pilot in France. Although a local academy was c ...
,
LAN Airlines and the
COSACH.
In June 1929, Ibáñez signed the
Treaty of Lima with
Peru
Peru, officially the Republic of Peru, is a country in western South America. It is bordered in the north by Ecuador and Colombia, in the east by Brazil, in the southeast by Bolivia, in the south by Chile, and in the south and west by the Pac ...
, whereby
Chile
Chile, officially the Republic of Chile, is a country in western South America. It is the southernmost country in the world and the closest to Antarctica, stretching along a narrow strip of land between the Andes, Andes Mountains and the Paci ...
agreed to return
Tacna Province—which had been seized during the
War of the Pacific
The War of the Pacific (), also known by War of the Pacific#Etymology, multiple other names, was a war between Chile and a Treaty of Defensive Alliance (Bolivia–Peru), Bolivian–Peruvian alliance from 1879 to 1884. Fought over Atacama Desert ...
—to Peru in exchange for financial compensation.
Ibáñez's popularity diminished once the effects of the
Great Crash started to be felt in Chile at the end of 1930. The prices of saltpeter and
copper
Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
, on which the
Chilean economy depended, plummeted. As a result, all loans were halted and recalled. With no influx of foreign currency and
protectionist
Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. ...
policies in the United States and Europe, Chile was nearly bankrupt. Tens of thousands of workers in the country's northern mines became unemployed within weeks.
Although Ibáñez's government increased
export taxes to 71% and imposed restrictions on
exit of devises, he did not the
balance of trade
Balance of trade is the difference between the monetary value of a nation's exports and imports of goods over a certain time period. Sometimes, trade in Service (economics), services is also included in the balance of trade but the official IMF d ...
, leading to a depletion of Chile's
gold
Gold is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol Au (from Latin ) and atomic number 79. In its pure form, it is a brightness, bright, slightly orange-yellow, dense, soft, malleable, and ductile metal. Chemically, gold is a transition metal ...
reserves. On July 13, 1931, Ibáñez named a "Cabinet of National Salvation" (''Gabinete de Salvación Nacional'') whose members included
Pedro Blanquier and
Juan Esteban Montero. Ibáñez's popularity dropped further as Blanquier's revelations on the state of Chile's finances were disseminated widely by Montero's relaxed censorship of the press.
Ibáñez's lavish public spending did not alleviate the situation; his opponents, primarily the exiled Grove and Alessandri, began to plan a comeback. Several conspiracies attempted to remove Ibáñez from power.
Public unrest followed, during which students from the
University of Chile
The University of Chile () is a public university, public research university in Santiago, Chile. It was founded on November 19, 1842, and inaugurated on September 17, 1843. and
Pontifical Catholic University of Chile protested, later joined by physicians and lawyers. Carabineros killed more than ten people, resulting in Ibáñez's resignation on July 26, 1931, followed by his exile the next day. Before leaving, Ibáñez designated
Pedro Opazo as his successor; he, in turn, resigned in favor of Interior Minister
Juan Esteban Montero, a member of the
Radical Party, who was proclaimed the new president by Congress.
The Socialist Republic (1931–1932)

Meanwhile, Alessandri had returned to Chile, and the presidential campaign began, with Alessandri running against Juan Montero.
The
October 1931 Presidential election was this time won by the
Radical candidate Montero, elected with 64% of the votes, defeating Alessandri, the candidate of the
Liberals (35%).
A short time after his investiture in December 1931, President Montero was confronted by the
Escuadra uprising, during which revolutionaries took some military ships and sank them in the Bay of
Coquimbo. Although the mutiny was peacefully resolved after the rebels' surrender, the fragility of the new government was exposed to the public. On June 4, 1932, planes from
El Bosque Air Base fled over the presidential palace,
La Moneda, leading to the resignation of Montero's cabinet. The putsch's leaders,
Marmaduque Grove,
Carlos Dávila and
Eugenio Matte, proclaimed the
Socialist Republic of Chile.
The
military junta
A military junta () is a system of government led by a committee of military leaders. The term ''Junta (governing body), junta'' means "meeting" or "committee" and originated in the Junta (Peninsular War), national and local junta organized by t ...
dissolved Congress, ordered to the ''
Caja de Crédito Popular'' banking institution to return pawned objects to their owners and decreed three days of closure of the banks. The new junta was however deeply divided, and on June 16, 1932, less than two weeks after the coup, Carlos Dávila deposed Grove and Matte and deported them to the Easter Islands. Dávila proclaimed himself "provisional President" on July 8, 1932.
The Armed Forces did not support Dávila. On September 13, 1932, they forced him to cede power to his Minister of Interior, General
Guillermo Blanche Espejo, who was a supporter of ex-President
Carlos Ibáñez.
General Espejo, who was not keen on organizing elections, and who was in turn threatened with a mutiny from the garrisons of
Antofagasta
Antofagasta () is a port city in northern Chile, about north of Santiago. It is the capital of Antofagasta Province and Antofagasta Region. According to the 2015 census, the city has a population of 402,669.
Once claimed by Bolivia follo ...
and
Concepción, ceded power to the President of the Supreme Court,
Abraham Oyanedel, who called for elections. The center-right candidate,
Arturo Alessandri, subsequently won 54% of the votes in the
October 30, 1932 presidential election, defeating his still-exiled opponent Marmaduque Grove, who obtained 18%.
Arturo Alessandri (1932–1938)
In order to see off the threats of a coup, Alessandri relied on the republican forces, trusted to repress any revolts and to not get involved in politics. They were created shortly before Alessandri's return, as a consequence of the civil movement. They functioned in secret and then publicly, marching in a great parade May 7, 1933 in front of the President, who saluted them. They disbanded in 1936, having considered their mission complete. The President asked the Parliament on several occasions to vote for a
state of constitutional exception, resulting in actions such as the famous burning of the 285th issue of the satirical magazine ''
Topaze'', which published a caricature of Alessandri he considered offensive.
Such precautions were not without reason, especially considering the appearance of new violent movements, such as the
Nazi
Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right politics, far-right Totalitarianism, totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During H ...
-inspired
National Socialist Movement of Chile of
Jorge González von Marées. In 1934, the rural rebellion of
Ranquil was crushed, 477 workers and
Mapuche
The Mapuche ( , ) also known as Araucanians are a group of Indigenous peoples of the Americas, Indigenous inhabitants of south-central Chile and southwestern Argentina, including parts of Patagonia. The collective term refers to a wide-ranging e ...
s being killed during the
Ranquil Massacre in the upper
Bio-Bio River, which had recently been opened for Chilean and foreign settlers of the
occupation of the Araucania.
In the economic sphere, the recovery from the
crisis of 1929 was begun with the work of Treasury Minister
Gustavo Ross, a pragmatic liberal who implemented a "development inwards" approach to growth. With respect to nitrates, he dissolved
COSACH and created
COVENSA (Corporation of Nitrate and Iodine Sale), a multi-faceted distributor rather than a producer. He balanced the fiscal deficit with new taxes and resumed payment of the external debt, with losses for holders of Chilean bonds. When the government achieved a surplus, they focused on public works, most notably the construction of the
National Stadium in Santiago, inaugurated in December 1938.
The Radical Governments (1938–1952)
The
Radical Party's
ideology
An ideology is a set of beliefs or values attributed to a person or group of persons, especially those held for reasons that are not purely about belief in certain knowledge, in which "practical elements are as prominent as theoretical ones". Form ...
was rooted in the principles of the 1789
French Revolution, upholding the values of
liberty
Liberty is the state of being free within society from oppressive restrictions imposed by authority on one's way of life, behavior, or political views. The concept of liberty can vary depending on perspective and context. In the Constitutional ...
,
equality, solidarity, participation and well-being. It had been created in the middle of the 19th century as a response to the conservative liberals then in power, and mainly represented the
middle class
The middle class refers to a class of people in the middle of a social hierarchy, often defined by occupation, income, education, or social status. The term has historically been associated with modernity, capitalism and political debate. C ...
es. It finally succeeded in gaining power as part of the
Popular Front left-wing coalition, although its cabinets were fragile due to constant
parliamentary instability.
Pedro Aguirre Cerda (1938–1941)
The first Radical President,
Pedro Aguirre Cerda, was a teacher and lawyer from the University of Chile, a perfect example of the socio-economic classes supporting the Radical Party. He was
elected in 1938 as the candidate of the
Popular Front, under the slogan "''Gobernar es educar''" ("to educate is to rule"). He narrowly defeated the conservative candidate
Gustavo Ross, mostly because of the political backlash caused by the
Seguro Obrero Massacre which followed an attempted coup d'état by the
National Socialist Movement of Chile (MNS), intended to take down the rightwing government of Arturo Alessandri and place Ibáñez in power. The fascist MNS had merged into the ''
Alianza Popular Libertadora'' coalition supporting Carlos Ibáñez, but after the attempted coup, Ibáñez opposed Ross, lending indirect support to Aguirre.
Pedro Aguirre Cerda promoted the development of
technical-industrial schools as a means to promote the training of technicians for the nascent industrialization of the country. He also created thousands of new regular schools and the expanded the university system to cover the whole of the country.
A strong
earthquake
An earthquakealso called a quake, tremor, or tembloris the shaking of the Earth's surface resulting from a sudden release of energy in the lithosphere that creates seismic waves. Earthquakes can range in intensity, from those so weak they ...
shook Chile on January 24, 1939, killing more than 30,000 people and destroying much of the infrastructure. Aguirre's cabinet thereafter created the ''
Corporación de Fomento de la Producción'' (CORFO) to encourage an ambitious program of
import substitution industrialization
Import substitution industrialization (ISI) is a protectionist trade and economics, economic policy that advocates replacing foreign imports with domestic production. It is based on the premise that a country should attempt to reduce its foreign ...
through subsidies and direct investments as well as launching important public works. At the same time, the ''
Empresa Nacional del Petróleo'' (ENAP) oil state company was created, as well as
ENDESA electricity company, the ''
Compañía de Acero del Pacífico'' (CAP) steel holding and the ''
Industria Azucarera Nacional'' (IANSA) sugar company. This was the basis for the industrialization of Chile.
The
German–Soviet Non Aggression Pact of 1939 during the Second World War led to the dismantling of the left-wing coalition, as the
Comintern
The Communist International, abbreviated as Comintern and also known as the Third International, was a political international which existed from 1919 to 1943 and advocated world communism. Emerging from the collapse of the Second Internatio ...
then abandoned the Popular Front strategy and
anti-fascism
Anti-fascism is a political movement in opposition to fascist ideologies, groups and individuals. Beginning in European countries in the 1920s, it was at its most significant shortly before and during World War II, where the Axis powers were op ...
in favour of advocating peace with Germany. However, following the
invasion of the Soviet Union by
Nazi Germany
Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
, the
Chilean Communist Party joined again the government.
During Aguirre's first year he had to face the military opposition to his plans, which boiled over with the ''
Ariostazo'' in August 1939, led by General
Ariosto Herera and Ibáñez. The leaders of the attempted putsch, in particular General Herera, were strongly influenced by
Italian fascism
Italian fascism (), also called classical fascism and Fascism, is the original fascist ideology, which Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini developed in Italy. The ideology of Italian fascism is associated with a series of political parties le ...
: Herera had served in Italy as a
in the 1930s.
Aguirre also campaigned for a
Nobel Prize
The Nobel Prizes ( ; ; ) are awards administered by the Nobel Foundation and granted in accordance with the principle of "for the greatest benefit to humankind". The prizes were first awarded in 1901, marking the fifth anniversary of Alfred N ...
for
Gabriela Mistral, a campaign which achieved its objective under his successor,
Juan Antonio Ríos. On September 3, 1939, 2,200
Spanish Republican refugees landed in
Valparaíso
Valparaíso () is a major city, Communes of Chile, commune, Port, seaport, and naval base facility in the Valparaíso Region of Chile. Valparaíso was originally named after Valparaíso de Arriba, in Castilla–La Mancha, Castile-La Mancha, Spain ...
on board of an old cargo ship, the ''
Winnipeg
Winnipeg () is the capital and largest city of the Provinces and territories of Canada, Canadian province of Manitoba. It is centred on the confluence of the Red River of the North, Red and Assiniboine River, Assiniboine rivers. , Winnipeg h ...
'', whose journey had been organized by the Special consul for Spanish emigration in Paris, the poet
Pablo Neruda.
In 1941 due to his rapidly escalating illness, Aguirre appointed his minister of the Interior,
Jerónimo Méndez as vice-president, and died soon after, on November 25, 1941.
Juan Antonio Ríos (1942–1946)
The left-wing coalition remained intact after President Aguirre's death, united by a common opponent, General
Carlos Ibáñez del Campo. The
Democratic Alliance (''Alianza Democrática'') chose as its candidate a member of the conservative wing of the Radical Party,
Juan Antonio Ríos, who defeated Ibáñez in the
February 1942 election, obtaining 56% of the votes. Ríos' presidency was marked by parliamentary instability, caused by rivalries between different political tendencies in his cabinet, and the renewed influence of Congress. The
Chilean Communist Party opposed Ríos who had initially chosen neutrality and refused to break off diplomatic relations with the
Axis Powers
The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
, while the right-wing accused him of complacency regarding the Left. At the same time, the
Chilean Socialist Party accused him of being too laissez-faire regarding big business and criticized him for not passing
labour legislation to protect workers.
In 1944, the Radical Party presented a series of proposals to Rios, which he deemed unacceptable. Those included the break-off of relations with
Francoist Spain
Francoist Spain (), also known as the Francoist dictatorship (), or Nationalist Spain () was the period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death i ...
– diplomatic and especially economic pressure had caused him to finally break off relations with the Axis Powers in January 1943 – the recognition of the USSR and a cabinet exclusively composed of Radicals.
By breaking off relations with the Axis, President Ríos made Chile eligible for the United States'
Lend-Lease
Lend-Lease, formally the Lend-Lease Act and introduced as An Act to Promote the Defense of the United States (),3,000 Hurricanes and >4,000 other aircraft)
* 28 naval vessels:
** 1 Battleship. (HMS Royal Sovereign (05), HMS Royal Sovereign)
* ...
program, and obtained loans necessary to help Chile's economic recovery. The close relations that developed with the United States were, however, problematic for him at home. Furthermore, his refusal to implement the Radical Party's propositions caused the resignation of all of the Radical ministers, leaving the President without a party. These internal divisions partly explained the right-wing success during the
1945 legislative elections, which were a debacle for the Socialists and the Communists, who obtained close to no seats in Parliament. The Radicals themselves lost a number of seats.
Furthermore, the repression of riots on
Plaza Bulnes in Santiago, leading to several deaths, gave further ammunition to critics of the President, and led to the resignation of members of the cabinet. Finally, shortly after the war, in October 1945, his entire cabinet resigned in protest of a state visit he made to Washington, DC. Economically, he faced labor unrest at home, brought about, in large part, by the drop in
copper
Copper is a chemical element; it has symbol Cu (from Latin ) and atomic number 29. It is a soft, malleable, and ductile metal with very high thermal and electrical conductivity. A freshly exposed surface of pure copper has a pinkish-orang ...
prices worldwide. Faced with terminal
cancer
Cancer is a group of diseases involving Cell growth#Disorders, abnormal cell growth with the potential to Invasion (cancer), invade or Metastasis, spread to other parts of the body. These contrast with benign tumors, which do not spread. Po ...
, he gave up his presidential powers in January 1946 in favour of his Minister of the Interior,
Alfredo Duhalde Vásquez, who acted as vice-president until his death on June 27, 1946.
Gabriel González Videla (1946–1952)
For the second time in five years, a
presidential election was held on September 4, 1946, opposing the
Radical candidate
Gabriel González Videla to the physician
Eduardo Cruz-Coke as representative of the
Conservative Party,
Bernardo Ibáñez for the
Socialist Party and
Fernando Alessandri Rodríguez for the
Liberal Party
The Liberal Party is any of many political parties around the world.
The meaning of ''liberal'' varies around the world, ranging from liberal conservatism on the right to social liberalism on the left. For example, while the political systems ...
. The Radicals, who had chosen a member of its left-wing as their candidate, did not succeed in reviving the
Democratic Alliance left-wing coalition, as the Socialist Party decided to go it alone for the elections. However, the Radicals did ally themselves with the Communists, with the poet and Communist senator
Pablo Neruda leading González's electoral campaign.

González was elected with 40% of the votes against 29% for the conservative candidate, Cruz Coke, and 27% for the liberal candidate Alessandri Rodríguez. Since González did not reach the necessary 50%, he had to be confirmed by Congress. He was duly confirmed on October 24 that year, following various negotiations between the parties, which led to the creation of a composite cabinet, including liberals, radicals and communists.
Once in the presidency, González had a fallout with the communists. Following the municipal elections, during which the Communist Party greatly increased its representation, the PCC demanded more cabinet seats, which González refused to grant. On the other hand, afraid of the success of the PCC, the Liberal Party withdrew from the cabinet. In June 1947, incidents during a strike affecting public transport in Santiago led to several casualties and the proclamation of a
state of siege in the capital. In August and October 1947, various strikes occurred in the
coal mines in the South, jeopardizing the government. Finally, President González's travel to the region succeeded in restoring tranquility. A few days afterwards, the miners of
Chuquicamata
Chuquicamata ( ; referred to as Chuqui for short) is the largest open-pit mining, open pit copper Mining, mine in terms of excavated volume in the world. It is located in the north of Chile, just outside Calama, Chile, Calama, at above sea level. ...
initiated another strike, prompting González to make increasing use of emergency laws.
Finally, under the pressure of the United States, González enacted a ''
Law of Permanent Defense of the Democracy'' (''Ley de Defensa Permanente de la Democracia'', aka known as ''Cursed Law'', ''Ley Maldita'') which outlawed the Communist Party and banned more than 20,000 persons from the electoral registers. The detention center in
Pisagua, used during Ibañez's dictatorship (and which would also be used during
Pinochet's dictatorship), was re-opened to imprison Communists, Anarchists and revolutionaries, although no detainee was executed this time. Prominent Communists, such as senator
Pablo Neruda, fled into
exile
Exile or banishment is primarily penal expulsion from one's native country, and secondarily expatriation or prolonged absence from one's homeland under either the compulsion of circumstance or the rigors of some high purpose. Usually persons ...
. He also broke off diplomatic relations with the Soviet Union and
Warsaw Pact
The Warsaw Pact (WP), formally the Treaty of Friendship, Co-operation and Mutual Assistance (TFCMA), was a Collective security#Collective defense, collective defense treaty signed in Warsaw, Polish People's Republic, Poland, between the Sovi ...
states. A pro-communist miners'
strike in
Lota was brutally suppressed. Demonstrations against what the communists called ''la ley maldita'' ("the damned law") led to the declaration of martial law, but were successfully repressed.
González's new supporters, who approved of his anti-communist stance, were the two right-wing parties, the
conservatives
Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilizati ...
and the
liberals. He assembled a new cabinet made up of conservatives, liberals, radicals, some socialists, and members of the small
Democratic Party.
González's tough stance against
social movement
A social movement is either a loosely or carefully organized effort by a large group of people to achieve a particular goal, typically a Social issue, social or Political movement, political one. This may be to carry out a social change, or to re ...
s led to protests, allegedly in an intent to repeat the events of the ''
Bogotazo'' in Colombia. However, these were quickly repressed, while González's government also had to confront, from the right, an attempted military coup which aimed at bringing back
Carlos Ibáñez to power, the
Pig Trotters conspiracy (''complot de las patitas de chancho''), thus named because the coup leaders met in a restaurant which specialized in this Chilean dish. He immediately ordered an investigation and the arrest of the coup leaders, including the head of the operation, General
Ramón Vergara. Ibáñez, however, was absolved of all responsibility.
In the
parliamentary elections of 1949, the pro-government parties triumphed. However, the unity between right-wing parties and radicals and socialists did not last long. Radicals were unhappy with the economic policies of the right-wing Finance Minister,
Jorge Alessandri, no matter how successful they were in controlling inflation. When a protest by government employees broke out in 1950, the radicals immediately declared their support for the protesters' demands. The right-wingers responded by resigning from González's cabinet.
By losing the liberal and conservative support, González lost the pro-government majority in Congress. He was of course unable to achieve much thereafter, but he did manage to make significant improvements in women's rights. González appointed the first female cabinet minister and the first female ambassador, and created the ''Oficina de la Mujer''.
Despite this political, social and economical instability, González's government did achieve some important successes, including the complete integration of women in political life, the remodeling of the city of
La Serena, the development of an Antarctic policy with the creation of the
Antártica Chilena Province – González was the first chief of state of any nation to visit Antarctica, and the
Gonzalez Videla Antarctic Base was named after him – and the determination along with Peru and Ecuador of the of the
Exclusive Economic Zone
An exclusive economic zone (EEZ), as prescribed by the 1982 United Nations Convention on the Law of the Sea, is an area of the sea in which a sovereign state has exclusive rights regarding the exploration and use of marine natural resource, reso ...
.
Start of mass politics (1952–1964)
Chile undertook an important economic transition after World War II. Due to the
protectionist
Protectionism, sometimes referred to as trade protectionism, is the economic policy of restricting imports from other countries through methods such as tariffs on imported goods, import quotas, and a variety of other government regulations. ...
policies of the Radical Governments and of their predecessors, a quite diverse, although not that strong, national industry had developed in the country, leading to a deep renewal of the economical and social structure of Chile. For the first time,
agriculture
Agriculture encompasses crop and livestock production, aquaculture, and forestry for food and non-food products. Agriculture was a key factor in the rise of sedentary human civilization, whereby farming of domesticated species created ...
ceased to be the primary productive sector, and was replaced by the
secondary sector (in particular by mining) and a primitive
service sector
The tertiary sector of the economy, generally known as the service sector, is the third of the three economic sectors in the three-sector model (also known as the economic cycle). The others are the primary sector (raw materials) and the ...
.
On the other hand, the
1952 presidential election displayed the Chilean political field as divided between three sectors, including the emerging centrist
Christian Democrat Party which had the support of a large spectrum of personalities. Furthermore, for the first time,
women were granted the right to vote and stand for election.
Carlos Ibáñez (1952–1958)
Four main candidates ran in the
1952 presidential election. On the right, the Conservative and Liberal parties endorsed the centrist
Arturo Matte; the Socialist Party ran
Salvador Allende, his first campaign for the presidency, while the Radicals supported
Pedro Enrique Alfonso. Finally, General
Carlos Ibáñez again ran for the presidency as an
independent. He promised to "sweep" out political corruption and bad government with his "broom" and was nicknamed the "General of Hope". Apart from his criticisms of the traditional political parties, he remained vague in his proposals and had no clear position on the
political spectrum
A political spectrum is a system to characterize and classify different Politics, political positions in relation to one another. These positions sit upon one or more Geometry, geometric Coordinate axis, axes that represent independent political ...
. He was elected on September 4, 1952, with 47% of the vote, and after Congress' ratification of his election, was invested on December 4, 1952.
Ibáñez's first issue was the
1953 legislative elections, which he hoped would bring him a parliamentary majority. He was mostly supported by the right-wing ''
Partido Agrario Laborista'' (PAL) and, in a lesser measure, by dissidents of the Socialist Party, who had formed the
Popular Socialist Party, and some feminist political unions — the feminist
María De la Cruz was his campaign manager, but she then refused a ministerial office. He formed an initial cabinet which included contradictory figures, but despite this initial fragility, managed to win some successes in the 1953 elections. Despite the latter, he was still at the mercy of an unified opposition.
Ibáñez's second term was a very modest success. By that time he was already old and ailing, and he left government mostly to his cabinet. Elected on a program promising to put an end to
chronic inflation in the Chilean economy, Ibáñez decided to freeze wages and prices, leading to stagnation of economic growth and in turn a relative increase in civil unrest. Inflation, however, continued, skyrocketing to 71% in 1954 and 83% in 1955. Helped by the
Klein-Sacks mission, Ibáñez managed to reduce it to 33% when he left the presidency. During his term, public transport costs rose by 50% and economic growth fell to 2.5%.
Now much more of a centrist politically, Ibáñez won the support of many left-wingers by repealing the ''Ley de Defensa de la Democracia'' (Law for the Defense of Democracy), which had banned the
Communist Party. However, in 1954, a strike in the copper mines extended itself to all of the country. Ibáñez tried to respond by proclaiming the
state of siege, but the Congress not only opposed this executive measure: it put immediately an end to it.
Some Chileans continued to support an Ibáñez dictatorship. These ''ibañistas'', most of whom were young army officers inspired by the Argentine ''
caudillo
A ''caudillo'' ( , ; , from Latin language, Latin , diminutive of ''caput'' "head") is a type of Personalist dictatorship, personalist leader wielding military and political power. There is no precise English translation for the term, though it ...
''
Juan Domingo Perón, created the ''
Línea Recta'' (Straight Line) group and the
PUMA (''Por Un Mañana Auspicioso'') to establish a new dictatorship. Ibáñez met with these conspirators, but ultimately his typical lack of trust ended the plans for a
self-coup
A self-coup, also called an autocoup () or coup from the top, is a form of coup d'état in which a political leader, having come to power through legal means, stays in power illegally through the actions of themselves or their supporters. The le ...
. A scandal rocked the Ibáñez administration and the Armed Forces when the press revealed Ibáñez's meetings with these conspirators.
At the end of his presidency, Ibáñez also clashed with the ''
Federación de Estudiantes de la Universidad de Chile'' (FECh) students' union because of his decision to increase the public transport fares. 20 people were killed and many more injured during demonstrations in April 1957.
Jorge Alessandri (1958–1964)
This succession of problems led the ''Partido Agrario Laborista'' (PAL) to withdraw from Ibáñez's government, leaving him isolated. On the other hand, the Radicals, Socialists and Communists organized the ''
Frente de Acción Popular'' (Front for Popular Action), presenting a common candidate to the presidency,
Salvador Allende. Obtaining 29% of the votes in the
1958 presidential election, he was narrowly defeated by the former Minister of Finances and son of the former President
Arturo Alessandri Palma,
Jorge Alessandri Rodríguez, who obtained 32% of the vote. Alessandri's election was narrowly ratified at the Congress by a right-of-center coalition. For the second consecutive time, the President of Chile was not a "traditional politician" figure.
Alessandri's narrow victory made the 1960 municipal elections decisive. Although the liberal-conservative coalition did not win these elections, it succeeded in having a score decent enough to face the left-wing opposition. Alessandri continued to receive their support after the
1961 legislative elections, while the Radical Party entered the governmental coalition, leading the President to have control of both Chambers of Parliament, something which had not occurred in recent times.
Despite these electoral successes, Alessandri's tenure had to face two successive earthquakes, one on May 21, 1960, day of the inauguration of the
parliamentary session, and another the following day, known abroad as the
Great Chilean earthquake, causing local
tsunami
A tsunami ( ; from , ) is a series of waves in a water body caused by the displacement of a large volume of water, generally in an ocean or a large lake. Earthquakes, volcanic eruptions and underwater explosions (including detonations, ...
s and leading to 2,000 to 5,000 dead. Cities such as
Puerto Saavedra,
Valdivia
Valdivia (; Mapuche: Ainil) is a city and commune in southern Chile, administered by the Municipality of Valdivia. The city is named after its founder, Pedro de Valdivia, and is located at the confluence of the Calle-Calle, Valdivia, and ...
,
Osorno,
Puerto Montt
Puerto Montt (Mapuche: Meli Pulli) is a port city and commune in southern Chile, located at the northern end of the Reloncaví Sound in the Llanquihue Province, Los Lagos Region, 1,055 km to the south of the capital, Santiago. The commune ...
and
Ancud were the most affected. Valdivia had to be completely evacuated following landslides threatening to block the outflow of
Riñihue Lake, leading to the ''
Riñihuazo'' damming project.
Thousands of volunteers helped survivors in rebuilding local infrastructures, while the United States, Cuba, Brazil, France, Italy and other countries sent international aid. Chile's situation forced the state to accept the US conditions for the receiving of aid via
John F. Kennedy's assistance plan for Latin America, the
Alliance for Progress
The Alliance for Progress () was an initiative launched by U.S. President John F. Kennedy on March 13, 1961, that aimed to establish economic cooperation between the U.S. and Latin America. Governor Luis Muñoz Marín of Puerto Rico was a close ...
, including the first steps of the
Chilean land reform. The disaster led to renewed inflation, and consequently to important strikes during 1961, followed by copper miners, teachers, physicians, banks and ports. Despite this, the country was retained as the host for the
1962 FIFA World Cup, initially awarded to the country in 1956.
In the 1963 municipal elections, the liberal-conservative coalition lost many seats, while the Christian-Democrats and the FRAP (Socialists and Communists) made major gains.
From the Christian-Democracy to the Popular Unity
For the first time in fifty years, a major new party appeared on the Chilean political scene, the
Christian Democrat Party. On the right, the liberal-conservative coalition merged into the
National Party, opposed to all progressive change within and outside of the political scene.
Eduardo Frei Montalva (1964–1970)
In the
September 1964 presidential election, three candidates stood:
Julio Durán on the right, representing the
Democratic Front of Chile, a center-right coalition gathering the
Liberal Party
The Liberal Party is any of many political parties around the world.
The meaning of ''liberal'' varies around the world, ranging from liberal conservatism on the right to social liberalism on the left. For example, while the political systems ...
, the
Conservative Party and the
United Conservative Party which had participated in Alessandri's cabinet;
Eduardo Frei Montalva
Eduardo Nicanor Frei Montalva (; 16 January 1911 – 22 January 1982) was a Chileans, Chilean political leader. In his long political career, he was Minister of Public Works, president of his Christian Democratic Party (Chile), Christia ...
for the
Christian Democrat Party, and finally
Salvador Allende for the
FRAP left-wing coalition, unifying the
Socialist Party and the
Communist Party. Fearing a victory of the Marxist candidate Allende, especially in the context of the
United States embargo against Cuba decided in 1962, the
CIA directly spent three million dollars to support the Christian Democrats during the electoral campaign, mostly through
radio and print advertising aimed at raising the "
Red Scare" again.
Eduardo Frei Montalva, who had been Minister of Public Works in 1945 in
Juan Antonio Ríos's cabinet supported by the left-wing
Democratic Alliance, and presidential candidate in 1958, was elected in this atmosphere, six years later, with the slogan "''Revolución en Libertad''" ("Revolution in Liberty"). He won 56% of the votes, defeating Allende who received 39% of the vote, while the right-wing Liberal-Conservative candidate Julio Durán obtained less than 5%. Frei was sworn in on November 3, 1964.
Frei's administration began many reforms in Chilean society. "''Promoción Popular''" (Social Promotion), "''
Reforma Agraria''" (agrarian reform), "''Reforma Educacional''" (education reform), and "''Juntas de Vecinos''" (neighborhood associations) were some of his main projects. He also took measures to rationalise drug supply.
Furthermore, in 1966, the
Rapa Nui of
Easter Island gained full Chilean citizenship. Easter Island had been annexed in 1888 by Chile. However, until 1953 the island had been rented to the
Williamson-Balfour Company as a sheep-farm, while the surviving Rapanui were confined to the settlement of
Hanga Roa and the rest of the island managed by the
Chilean Navy, until its opening to the public in 1966.
Salvador Allende (1970–1973)
See also
*
Presidents of Chile timeline
References
{{DEFAULTSORT:Presidential Republic (1925-73)
20th century in Chile
Democratization