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African-American history African-American history started with the forced transportation of List of ethnic groups of Africa, Africans to North America in the 16th and 17th centuries. The European colonization of the Americas, and the resulting Atlantic slave trade, ...
, the post–civil rights era is defined as the time period in the United States since Congressional passage of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () is a landmark civil rights and United States labor law, labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on Race (human categorization), race, Person of color, color, religion, sex, and nationa ...
, the Voting Rights Act of 1965, and the Fair Housing Act of 1968, major federal legislation that ended legal segregation, gained federal oversight and enforcement of voter registration and electoral practices in states or areas with a history of discriminatory practices, and ended discrimination in the renting and buying of housing. Politically,
African Americans African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa ...
have made substantial strides in the post–civil rights era. Civil rights leader Jesse Jackson ran for the Democratic Party's presidential nomination in 1984 and 1988, attracting more African Americans into politics and unprecedented support and leverage for people of colour in politics. In 2008,
Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...
was elected as the first
President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the Federal government of the United States#Executive branch, executive branch of the Federal government of t ...
of African descent. In the same period, African Americans have suffered disproportionate unemployment rates following industrial and corporate restructuring, with a rate of poverty in the 21st century that is equal to that in the 1960s. African Americans have the highest rates of incarceration of any minority group, especially in the southern states of the former Confederacy.


1965–1970

On February 21, 1965, Malcolm X, an African-American rights activist with national and international prominence, was shot and killed in New York City. 1966 was the last year of publication of '' The Negro Motorist Green Book'', informally known as "The Green Book". The book provided advice to African-American travelers, during years of legal segregation and overt discrimination, about places where they could stay, get gas, and eat while traveling cross-country. For example, in 1956 only three
New Hampshire New Hampshire ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the New England region of the Northeastern United States. It borders Massachusetts to the south, Vermont to the west, Maine and the Gulf of Maine to the east, and the Canadian province of Quebec t ...
motels served African Americans, and most motels and hotels in the South discriminated by race. Rugh, p. 77. After the passage of the
Civil Rights Act of 1964 The Civil Rights Act of 1964 () is a landmark civil rights and United States labor law, labor law in the United States that outlaws discrimination based on Race (human categorization), race, Person of color, color, religion, sex, and nationa ...
, the ''Green Book'' largely became obsolete. Hinckley, p. 127. In 1966–1967, the African-American cultural holiday Kwanzaa was first celebrated. Kwanzaa was founded by Maulana Karenga as a Pan-Africanist cultural and racial-identity event, as an alternative to cultural events of the dominant society such as Christmas and Hanukkah. The April 1968 assassination of Martin Luther King Jr. led to protests and riots in multiple U.S. cities, primarily in Black-majority communities. Beginning in 1971, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was established as a holiday in numerous cities and states. A U.S. federal holiday was established in King's name in 1986. Since his death, hundreds of streets in the U.S. have been renamed in his honour. King has become a national icon in the history of American liberalism and American progressivism. In May 1969, an armed standoff at two educational institutions in North Carolina between students and the National Guard left two people dead. Hundreds of students and soldiers were involved. On June 13, 1969, the founder of the
Five-Percent Nation The Five-Percent Nation, sometimes referred to as the Nation of Gods and Earths (NGE/NOGE) or the Five Percenters, is an Black nationalism, Afro-American Nationalist movement influenced by the Nation of Islam founded in 1964 in the Harlem secti ...
, Clarence 13X, was shot dead in NYC. The Five-Percent Nation was originally a spin-off group from the Nation of Islam. The Five-Percent Nation has had a significant influence upon New York based hip-hop artists in the decades since its founding. On December 4, 1969, Fred Hampton, a prominent
Black Panther A black panther is the Melanism, melanistic colour variant of the leopard (''Panthera pardus'') and the jaguar (''Panthera onca''). Black panthers of both species have excess black pigments, but their typical Rosette (zoology), rosettes are al ...
activist, was murdered by police while sleeping in Chicago.


1970s

On April 8, 1970, the nomination of G. Harrold Carswell to the U.S. Supreme Court was defeated by the U.S. Senate, in part because of his history of racist remarks and actions. On May 27, 1970, the film '' Watermelon Man'' was released, directed by Melvin Van Peebles and starring Godfrey Cambridge. In 1971, the release of '' Sweet Sweetback's Baadasssss Song'' and '' Shaft'' marked the start of Blaxploitation films. The Blaxploitation genre catered to Black male fantasies surrounding violence, sex, the drug trade, pimping and overcoming "The Man". On April 20, 1971, the
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
, in '' Swann v. Charlotte-Mecklenburg Board of Education'', upheld
busing Desegregation busing (also known as integrated busing, forced busing, or simply busing) was an attempt to diversify the racial make-up of schools in the United States by transporting students to more distant schools with less diverse student pop ...
of students to achieve integration. In June 1971, eight African-Americans were found shot dead in a house in Detroit, in the worst mass killing in Detroit's history. In December 1971, Jesse Jackson organized Operation PUSH in Chicago. In 1972, Shirley Chisholm became the first major-party African-American candidate for
President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the Federal government of the United States#Executive branch, executive branch of the Federal government of t ...
and the first woman to run for the Democratic presidential nomination. In 1976,
Black History Month Black History Month is an annually observed commemorative month originating in the United States, where it is also known as African-American History Month. It began as a way of remembering important people and events in the history of the Af ...
was founded by Professor Carter Woodson and the Association for the Study of Afro-American Life and History. In 1972, DJ Kool Herc developed the musical blueprint for what later became
hip-hop Hip-hop or hip hop (originally disco rap) is a popular music genre that emerged in the early 1970s from the African-American community of New York City. The style is characterized by its synthesis of a wide range of musical techniques. Hi ...
, later playing live shows for high school-age students in
the Bronx The Bronx ( ) is the northernmost of the five Boroughs of New York City, boroughs of New York City, coextensive with Bronx County, in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. It shares a land border with Westchester County, New York, West ...
,
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
.Hermes, Will
"All Rise for the National Anthem of Hip-Hop"
''New York Times'', 29 October 2006. Retrieved on 9 September 2008.
In January 1973, gunmen stormed a house in Washington DC, and drowned four African-American children in bathtubs, and shot and killed two men and a boy. The house was occupied by members of the Hanafi Muslim sect, whose leader was in a dispute with the Nation of Islam. In 1977 the leader of the Hanafi sect led an armed takeover of 3 buildings in Washington DC, taking 149 hostages, to bring attention to the murder of his family. Two people were killed during the incident. In the 1973 and 1974 MLB seasons, African-American baseball player Hank Aaron sought to pass Babe Ruth's career home-run record. Between 1973 and 1974, Aaron broke the world record for most mail received in one year with over 950,000 letters. Over one-third of those letters were hate mail letters for beating a white man's record, including death threats. In June 1974, Martin Luther King's mother was assassinated. Alberta Williams King was shot dead at a church during a Sunday service. Alex Haley published his novel '' Roots: The Saga of an American Family'' in 1976. It became a bestseller and generated great levels of interest in African-American genealogy and history. Roots was adapted into an eight part 1977 TV series that attracted a huge audience across the country. President
Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...
appointed Andrew Young to serve as Ambassador to the United Nations in 1977, the first African American to serve in the position. In '' Regents of the University of California v. Bakke'' (1978), the U.S. Supreme Court barred racial quota systems in college admissions but affirmed the constitutionality of
affirmative action Affirmative action (also sometimes called reservations, alternative access, positive discrimination or positive action in various countries' laws and policies) refers to a set of policies and practices within a government or organization seeking ...
programs giving equal access to minorities. On November 18, 1978, six hundred and forty eight African-Americans died in the mass murder/suicide of the Peoples Temple religious group in
Jonestown The Peoples Temple Agricultural Project, better known by its informal name "Jonestown", was a remote settlement in Guyana established by the Peoples Temple, an American religious movement under the leadership of Jim Jones. Jonestown became in ...
,
Guyana Guyana, officially the Co-operative Republic of Guyana, is a country on the northern coast of South America, part of the historic British West Indies. entry "Guyana" Georgetown, Guyana, Georgetown is the capital of Guyana and is also the co ...
.Rebecca Moore
"An Update on the Demographics of Jonestown"
San Diego State University, March 6, 2019.
The religious group, led by Jim Jones, had relocated from California to establish a community in Guyana, South America. The Atlanta Child Murders which were committed between 1979 and 1981 set Atlanta's Black community on edge. At least 28 Black children and teenagers were abducted and murdered in similar circumstances in less than two years before their killer was caught. File:1520 Sedwick Ave., Bronx, New York1.JPG, 1520 Sedgwick Avenue where DJ Kool Herc threw his first parties in
the Bronx The Bronx ( ) is the northernmost of the five Boroughs of New York City, boroughs of New York City, coextensive with Bronx County, in the U.S. state of New York (state), New York. It shares a land border with Westchester County, New York, West ...
, New York City in 1973, considered to be the birth of
hip-hop Hip-hop or hip hop (originally disco rap) is a popular music genre that emerged in the early 1970s from the African-American community of New York City. The style is characterized by its synthesis of a wide range of musical techniques. Hi ...
. File:Sherman Hemsley Isabel Sanford Zara Cully The Jeffersons 1976.JPG, The cast of '' The Jeffersons'' in 1976. ''The Jeffersons'' ran from 1975 to 1985, and was the second-longest running TV series with a mainly African-American cast. File:Peoples Temple members attended an anti-eviction rally at the I-Hotel in January 1977.jpg, Followers of Jim Jones in San Francisco in January 1977


1980s

In 1982,
Michael Jackson Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. Dubbed the "King of Pop", he is regarded as Cultural impact of Michael Jackson, one of the most culturally significan ...
released '' Thriller'', which became the best-selling album of all time. The Miracle Valley shootout in October 1982 saw two Black churchgoers killed and seven Arizona law enforcement officers injured. In 1983, Guion Bluford became the first
African American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an Race and ethnicity in the United States, American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from an ...
to go into space in NASA's program. President
Ronald Reagan Ronald Wilson Reagan (February 6, 1911 – June 5, 2004) was an American politician and actor who served as the 40th president of the United States from 1981 to 1989. He was a member of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party a ...
signed a bill in 1983 to create a federal holiday to honor Martin Luther King Jr., who was assassinated in 1968 and considered a martyr to civil rights. Established by legislation in 1983, Martin Luther King Jr. Day was first celebrated as a national holiday on January 20, 1986. Alice Walker received the
Pulitzer Prize The Pulitzer Prizes () are 23 annual awards given by Columbia University in New York City for achievements in the United States in "journalism, arts and letters". They were established in 1917 by the will of Joseph Pulitzer, who had made his fo ...
in 1983 for her novel '' The Color Purple''. In September 1983, Vanessa L. Williams became the first African American to win the title of Miss America as Miss America 1984. The crack cocaine epidemic had a devastating effect on Black America. As early as 1981, reports of crack were appearing in
Los Angeles Los Angeles, often referred to by its initials L.A., is the List of municipalities in California, most populous city in the U.S. state of California, and the commercial, Financial District, Los Angeles, financial, and Culture of Los Angeles, ...
,
San Diego San Diego ( , ) is a city on the Pacific coast of Southern California, adjacent to the Mexico–United States border. With a population of over 1.4 million, it is the List of United States cities by population, eighth-most populous city in t ...
,
Miami Miami is a East Coast of the United States, coastal city in the U.S. state of Florida and the county seat of Miami-Dade County, Florida, Miami-Dade County in South Florida. It is the core of the Miami metropolitan area, which, with a populat ...
, and
Houston Houston ( ) is the List of cities in Texas by population, most populous city in the U.S. state of Texas and in the Southern United States. Located in Southeast Texas near Galveston Bay and the Gulf of Mexico, it is the county seat, seat of ...
." DEA History Book, 1876–1990" (drug usage & enforcement), U.S. Department of Justice, 1991, USDoJ.gov webpage
DoJ-DEA-History-1985-1990
In 1984, the distribution and use of crack exploded. In 1984, in some major cities such as New York,
Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
, Houston, Los Angeles, and
Detroit Detroit ( , ) is the List of municipalities in Michigan, most populous city in the U.S. state of Michigan. It is situated on the bank of the Detroit River across from Windsor, Ontario. It had a population of 639,111 at the 2020 United State ...
, one dosage unit of crack could be obtained for as little as $2.50 (). Between 1984 and 1989, the homicide rate for black males aged 14 to 17 more than doubled, and the homicide rate for black males aged 18 to 24 increased nearly as much. During this period, the black community also suffered a 20%–100% increase in fetal death rates, low birth-weight babies, weapons arrests, and the number of children in foster care. The beginning of the crack epidemic coincided with the rise of
hip hop music Hip-hop or hip hop (originally disco rap) is a popular music Music genre, genre that emerged in the early 1970s from the African Americans, African-American community of New York City. The style is characterized by its synthesis of a wide r ...
in the Black community in the mid-1980s, strongly influencing the evolution of hardcore hip hop and
gangsta rap Gangsta rap or gangster rap, initially called reality rap, is a subgenre of rap music that conveys the culture, values, and experiences of urban gangs and street hustlers, frequently discussing unpleasant realities of the world in general th ...
, as crack and hip hop became the two leading fundamentals of urban street culture. '' The Cosby Show'' begins as a TV series in 1984. Featuring an upper-middle-class family with comedian
Bill Cosby William Henry Cosby Jr. ( ; born July 12, 1937) is an American retired comedian, actor, and media personality. Often cited as a trailblazer for African Americans in the entertainment industry, Cosby was a film, television, and stand-up comedy ...
as a physician and head of the family, it is regarded as one of the defining television shows of the decade. On November 21, 1984, top youth basketballer Ben Wilson was shot and killed in Chicago.Chicken Soup for the Soul: Inside Basketball: 101 Great Hoop Stories from ..., By Jack Canfield, Mark Victor Hansen, Pat Williams
Retrieved December 27, 2019.
The Great Book of Chicago Sports Lists, By Dan McNeil, Ed Sherman
Retrieved December 27, 2019.
Derrick Rose, By Adam Woog
Retrieved December 27, 2019.
Wilson was regarded as the top high school player in the U.S., by scouts and coaches attending the 1984 Athletes For Better Education basketball camp. 11 members of the Black liberation and back-to-nature group MOVE died during a standoff with police in West Philadelphia on May 13, 1985. John Africa, the founder of MOVE was killed, as well as five other adults and five children. 65 homes were destroyed after a police helicopter dropped an incendiary device, causing an out of control fire in surrounding houses. The film '' The Color Purple'' was released to box office success in December 1985.The Color Purple
. Box Office Mojo. Accessed Dec. 9, 2011.
Set in the early 20th Century, ''The Color Purple'' tells the story of a young Black girl named Celie Harris who faces issues both public and socially hidden, including domestic violence,
incest Incest ( ) is sexual intercourse, sex between kinship, close relatives, for example a brother, sister, or parent. This typically includes sexual activity between people in consanguinity (blood relations), and sometimes those related by lineag ...
,
pedophilia Pedophilia ( alternatively spelled paedophilia) is a psychiatric disorder in which an adult or older adolescent experiences a primary or exclusive sexual attraction to prepubescent children. Although girls typically begin the process of pube ...
,
poverty Poverty is a state or condition in which an individual lacks the financial resources and essentials for a basic standard of living. Poverty can have diverse Biophysical environmen ...
,
racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
, and
sexism Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is int ...
. ''The Color Purple'' has been described as "a plea for respect for Black women." In January 1987 in rural Forsyth County, Georgia, about 20,000 demonstrators took part in a march after a previous march in the county was disrupted by white supremacists and Klansmen in one of the largest civil rights demonstrations since the 1960s. '' Beloved'' by
Toni Morrison Chloe Anthony Wofford Morrison (born Chloe Ardelia Wofford; February 18, 1931 – August 5, 2019), known as Toni Morrison, was an American novelist and editor. Her first novel, ''The Bluest Eye'', was published in 1970. The critically accl ...
was published in 1987. In 2006, a ''New York Times'' survey of writers and literary critics ranked it as the best work of American fiction in the last 25 years. After producing additional masterworks, Toni Morrison was later awarded the Nobel Prize for Literature. In 1988, track and field athlete Florence Griffith Joyner, also known as "Flo Jo", won three gold and one silver medal at the
1988 Summer Olympics The 1988 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the XXIV Olympiad () and officially branded as Seoul 1988 (), were an international multi-sport event held from 17 September to 2 October 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. 159 nations were represe ...
. At the time, her medal haul was the second most for a female track and field athlete in history. 1989 saw the first major African-American
gangsta rap Gangsta rap or gangster rap, initially called reality rap, is a subgenre of rap music that conveys the culture, values, and experiences of urban gangs and street hustlers, frequently discussing unpleasant realities of the world in general th ...
album - N.W.A's '' Straight Outta Compton''. Gangsta rap would be recurrently accused of promoting anti-social behavior and broad criminality, especially assault,
homicide Homicide is an act in which a person causes the death of another person. A homicide requires only a Volition (psychology), volitional act, or an omission, that causes the death of another, and thus a homicide may result from Accident, accidenta ...
and drug dealing,
misogyny Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against Woman, women or girls. It is a form of sexism that can keep women at a lower social status than Man, men, thus maintaining the social roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been wide ...
,
promiscuity Promiscuity is the practice of engaging in sexual activity frequently with different partners or being indiscriminate in the choice of sexual partners. The term can carry a moral judgment. A common example of behavior viewed as promiscuous by man ...
and
materialism Materialism is a form of monism, philosophical monism according to which matter is the fundamental Substance theory, substance in nature, and all things, including mind, mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. Acco ...
. Ron Brown was elected chairman of the
Democratic National Committee The Democratic National Committee (DNC) is the principal executive leadership board of the United States's Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party. According to the party charter, it has "general responsibility for the affairs of the ...
in 1989, becoming the first African American to lead a major
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
political party A political party is an organization that coordinates candidates to compete in a particular area's elections. It is common for the members of a party to hold similar ideas about politics, and parties may promote specific political ideology, ...
.
Colin Powell Colin Luther Powell ( ; – ) was an Americans, American diplomat, and army officer who was the 65th United States secretary of state from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African-American to hold the office. He was the 15th National Security ...
was appointed as Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff in 1989. In
1989 1989 was a turning point in political history with the "Revolutions of 1989" which ended communism in Eastern Bloc of Europe, starting in Poland and Hungary, with experiments in power-sharing coming to a head with the opening of the Berlin W ...
, Douglas Wilder was elected as the first
African-American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. ...
governor of Virginia The governor of the Commonwealth of Virginia is the head of government of the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Virginia. The Governor (United States), governor is head of the Government_of_Virginia#Executive_branch, executive branch ...
, and the first African-American elected governor of the
United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
. File:Michael Jackson 1984.jpg,
Michael Jackson Michael Joseph Jackson (August 29, 1958 – June 25, 2009) was an American singer, songwriter, dancer, and philanthropist. Dubbed the "King of Pop", he is regarded as Cultural impact of Michael Jackson, one of the most culturally significan ...
's 1982 album '' Thriller'' became the best selling album of all time. File:Florence Griffith Joyner2.jpg, Track and field star Florence Griffith Joyner won three gold and one silver medal at the
1988 Summer Olympics The 1988 Summer Olympics (), officially the Games of the XXIV Olympiad () and officially branded as Seoul 1988 (), were an international multi-sport event held from 17 September to 2 October 1988 in Seoul, South Korea. 159 nations were represe ...
.


1990s

Clarence Thomas was confirmed to the U.S. Supreme Court in 1991. In July 1991, serial killer and cannibal Jeffrey Dahmer was arrested. Eleven of Dahmer's 17 victims were African-Americans. The
1992 Los Angeles riots The 1992 Los Angeles riots were a series of riots and civil disturbances that occurred in Los Angeles County, California, United States, during April and May 1992. Unrest began in South Los Angeles, South Central Los Angeles on April 29, after ...
erupted after the officers accused of beating
Rodney King Rodney Glen King (April 2, 1965June 17, 2012) was a Black American victim of police brutality. On March 3, 1991, he was severely beaten by Police officer, officers of the Los Angeles Police Department (LAPD) during his arrest after a high spe ...
in March 1991 were acquitted. In 1992 Mae Carol Jemison became the first
African-American African Americans, also known as Black Americans and formerly also called Afro-Americans, are an American racial and ethnic group that consists of Americans who have total or partial ancestry from any of the Black racial groups of Africa. ...
woman to travel in space when she went into orbit aboard the Space Shuttle ''Endeavour''. Carol Moseley Braun (D-Illinois) became the first African-American woman to be elected to the United States Senate on November 3, 1992. Director Spike Lee's film '' Malcolm X'' was released in 1992, a serious biography of the leader of the Nation of Islam. In 1993, civil rights activist C. Delores Tucker started publicly campaigning against misogyny in rap music. Tucker believed that the attacks upon Black women in hip-hop lyrics threatened the moral foundation of African American society. In response, Delores Tucker was lyrically disparaged by multiple rappers, including Tupac, and
Eminem Marshall Bruce Mathers III (born October 17, 1972), known professionally as Eminem, is an American rapper, songwriter, and record producer. Regarded as one of the greatest and most influential rappers of all time, he is credited with popula ...
.
Cornel West Cornel Ronald West (born June 2, 1953) is an American philosopher, theologian, political activist, politician, social critic, and public intellectual. West was an independent candidate in the 2024 United States presidential election and is an ou ...
's text, '' Race Matters,'' was published in 1994. The Million Man March was held on October 16, 1995, in Washington, D.C., co-initiated by Louis Farrakhan and James Bevel. The Million Woman March was held on October 25, 1997, in
Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...
. The racially charged murder trial of O.J. Simpson transfixed America between January and October 1995. The trial of the already famous NFL star and actor O. J. Simpson was the most publicized in U.S. history.


2000s

On January 20, 2001,
Colin Powell Colin Luther Powell ( ; – ) was an Americans, American diplomat, and army officer who was the 65th United States secretary of state from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African-American to hold the office. He was the 15th National Security ...
was appointed as the first African American to be Secretary of State. In June 2003, the
Supreme Court In most legal jurisdictions, a supreme court, also known as a court of last resort, apex court, high (or final) court of appeal, and court of final appeal, is the highest court within the hierarchy of courts. Broadly speaking, the decisions of ...
in '' Grutter v. Bollinger'' upheld the University of Michigan Law School's racial admission policy. In the simultaneously heard '' Gratz v. Bollinger,'' the university was required to change a racial admissions policy. In 2004, the founder of the New York-based Nuwaubian Nation, Dwight York, was sentenced to 135 years for child molestation and racketeering. The Millions More Movement held a march in Washington D.C on October 15, 2005. Rosa Parks died at the age of 92 on October 25, 2005. Rosa Parks was a noted civil rights activist who had helped initiate the Montgomery bus boycott in 1955. As an honor, her body lay in state in the Capitol Rotunda in Washington, D.C., before her funeral. In March 2007, the
Cherokee Nation The Cherokee Nation ( or ) is the largest of three list of federally recognized tribes, federally recognized tribes of Cherokees in the United States. It includes people descended from members of the Cherokee Nation (1794–1907), Old Cheroke ...
voted to expel African American descendants of slaves held by the Cherokee from the Cherokee tribe. This ruling ignited a 10-year legal battle, with the Black Cherokee freedmen regaining their legal status within the Cherokee Nation in 2017. On June 28, 2007, the U.S. Supreme Court in '' Parents Involved in Community Schools v. Seattle School District No. 1,'' decided along with '' Meredith v. Jefferson County Board of Education,'' ruled that school districts could not assign students to particular public schools solely for the purpose of achieving racial integration; it declined to recognize racial balancing as a compelling state interest. On June 3, 2008,
Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...
received enough delegates by the end of state primaries to be the presumptive
Democratic Party of the United States The Democratic Party is a center-left political party in the United States. One of the major parties of the U.S., it was founded in 1828, making it the world's oldest active political party. Its main rival since the 1850s has been the R ...
nominee. On August 28, 2008, at the
2008 Democratic National Convention The 2008 Democratic National Convention was a quadrennial United States presidential nominating convention, presidential nominating convention of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party where it adopted its national platform an ...
, in a stadium filled with supporters, Obama accepted the Democratic nomination for
President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the Federal government of the United States#Executive branch, executive branch of the Federal government of t ...
. Obama was elected 44th President of the United States of America on November 4, 2008, opening his victory speech with, "If there is anyone out there who still doubts that America is a place where all things are possible; who still wonders if the dream of our founders is alive in our time; who still questions the power of our democracy, tonight is your answer." On January 20, 2009, Obama was sworn in as the 44th President of the United States, the first African American to become president. Former Maryland Lt. Governor Michael Steele, an African American, was elected as Chairman of the
Republican National Committee The Republican National Committee (RNC) is the primary committee of the Republican Party of the United States. Its members are chosen by the state delegations at the national convention every four years. It is responsible for developing and pr ...
on January 30, 2009. In October 2009, Obama was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize. In 2010, the
U.S. Postal Service The United States Postal Service (USPS), also known as the Post Office, U.S. Mail, or simply the Postal Service, is an independent agencies of the United States government, independent agency of the executive branch of the federal governmen ...
issued a commemorative six-stamp set portraying twelve civil rights pioneers.


2010s

On July 19, 2010, Shirley Sherrod was pressured to resign from the U.S. Department of Agriculture because of controversial publicity. The department apologized to her for her being inaccurately portrayed as racist toward white Americans.Zoe Tillman
Former USDA Official Settles Defamation Suit Against Breitbart Estate
''National Law Journal'' (October 1, 2015).
In 2013, protests were held across the United States following the death of an unarmed African-American teenager, Trayvon Martin, who was shot by George Zimmerman in Florida. Zimmerman was charged with murder, but later acquitted. In reaction to Martin's death and Zimmerman's acquittal, Black activists Alicia Garza, Patrisse Cullors, and Opal Tometi popularized the hashtag #BlackLivesMatter. In 2014, massive protests were held in Ferguson, Missouri, following the shooting death of Michael Brown Jr. by Ferguson police. In July 2014, the death of Eric Garner while being held in a chokehold by a New York City policeman, Daniel Pantaleo, sparked additional outrage and protests across the country. In the wake of these deaths, and others,
Black Lives Matter Black Lives Matter (BLM) is a Decentralization, decentralized political and social movement that aims to highlight racism, discrimination and Racial inequality in the United States, racial inequality experienced by black people, and to pro ...
developed into a nationwide non-violent movement. On June 17, 2015, Nine Black churchgoers were murdered in the racially motivated Charleston church shooting. From 2019, the American Descendants of Slavery (ADOS) political movement began to differentiate themselves from the growing number of Black African immigrants in the United States and Black immigrants in the U.S. from the Caribbean.


2020s

In later May 2020, a video was posted on
social media Social media are interactive technologies that facilitate the Content creation, creation, information exchange, sharing and news aggregator, aggregation of Content (media), content (such as ideas, interests, and other forms of expression) amongs ...
platforms showing George Floyd being murdered by a Minneapolis Police Department officer, Derek Chauvin, who knelt on Floyd's neck for over ten minutes. Floyd's murder sparked outrage and condemnation across the country and the globe. Despite restrictions on public gatherings of large sizes due to the
COVID-19 pandemic The COVID-19 pandemic (also known as the coronavirus pandemic and COVID pandemic), caused by severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus 2 (SARS-CoV-2), began with an disease outbreak, outbreak of COVID-19 in Wuhan, China, in December ...
, large protests were held in cities across the United States as well as in many other nations. On August 28, 2020, thousands of people gathered at the
Lincoln Memorial The Lincoln Memorial is a List of national memorials of the United States, U.S. national memorial honoring Abraham Lincoln, the List of presidents of the United States, 16th president of the United States, located on the western end of the Nati ...
in Washington, D.C., for the Commitment March, organized by Rev.
Al Sharpton Alfred Charles Sharpton Jr. (born October 3, 1954) is an American civil rights and social justice activist, Baptists, Baptist minister, radio talk show host, and TV personality, who is also the founder of the National Action Network civil rig ...
and joined by Martin Luther King III, in support of black civil rights. In late 2020, the Portland foreclosure protest was a response to the eviction of an Afro-indigenous family in
Portland, Oregon Portland ( ) is the List of cities in Oregon, most populous city in the U.S. state of Oregon, located in the Pacific Northwest region. Situated close to northwest Oregon at the confluence of the Willamette River, Willamette and Columbia River, ...
. Across 2020, the COVID-19 pandemic had a disproportionately negative impact upon Black Americans. Black Americans died from the virus at a higher rate than the general population. Black Americans also suffered significant economic hardship due to the virus. On March 31, 2019, rapper, entrepreneur, and activist Nipsey Hussle was murdered in Los Angeles. The news of Hussle's death reverberated across Black America. On November 3, 2020,
Kamala Harris Kamala Devi Harris ( ; born October 20, 1964) is an American politician and attorney who served as the 49th vice president of the United States from 2021 to 2025 under President Joe Biden. She is the first female, first African American, and ...
was elected the first Black
Vice President of the United States The vice president of the United States (VPOTUS) is the second-highest ranking office in the Executive branch of the United States government, executive branch of the U.S. federal government, after the president of the United States, and ranks f ...
. On April 23, 2025, President Donald Trump revoked Executive order 14041. Originally signed by President Biden, the order declares "It is the policy of my Administration to advance educational equity, excellence, and economic opportunity in partnership with HBCUs, and to ensure that these vital institutions of higher learning have the resources and support to continue to thrive for generations to come."


Political representation

In 1989, Douglas Wilder became the first African American to be elected governor in U.S. history. In 1992 Carol Moseley-Braun of
Illinois Illinois ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Midwestern United States, Midwestern United States. It borders on Lake Michigan to its northeast, the Mississippi River to its west, and the Wabash River, Wabash and Ohio River, Ohio rivers to its ...
became the first black woman to be elected to the U.S. Senate. In 2000 there were 8,936 black officeholders in the United States, showing a net increase of 7,467 since 1970. In 2001 there were 484 black mayors. The 38 African-American members of Congress formed the Congressional Black Caucus, which serves as a political bloc for issues relating to African Americans. The appointment of blacks to high federal offices—including General
Colin Powell Colin Luther Powell ( ; – ) was an Americans, American diplomat, and army officer who was the 65th United States secretary of state from 2001 to 2005. He was the first African-American to hold the office. He was the 15th National Security ...
, Chairman of the U.S. Armed Forces Joint Chiefs of Staff, 1989–1993,
United States Secretary of State The United States secretary of state (SecState) is a member of the executive branch of the federal government of the United States and the head of the U.S. Department of State. The secretary of state serves as the principal advisor to the ...
, 2001–2005; Condoleezza Rice, Assistant to the President for National Security Affairs, 2001–2004, Secretary of State in, 2005–2009; Ron Brown, United States Secretary of Commerce, 1993–1996, Eric Holder,
Attorney General of the United States The United States attorney general is the head of the United States Department of Justice and serves as the chief law enforcement officer of the federal government. The attorney general acts as the principal legal advisor to the president of the ...
, 2009–present; and Supreme Court justices
Thurgood Marshall Thoroughgood "Thurgood" Marshall (July 2, 1908 – January 24, 1993) was an American civil rights lawyer and jurist who served as an associate justice of the Supreme Court of the United States from 1967 until 1991. He was the Supreme C ...
and Clarence Thomas—also demonstrates the increasing contributions of blacks in the political arena. In 2009, Michael S. Steele was elected as the first African-American chairman of the national Republican Party. In 2021, Ebenezer Baptist Church pastor
Raphael Warnock Raphael Gamaliel Warnock ( ; born July 23, 1969) is an American politician and Baptists, Baptist pastor serving as the Seniority in the United States Senate, junior United States Senate, United States senator from Georgia (U.S. state), Georgia, ...
became the first African American Democratic Senator from a former Confederate state.


2008 presidential election of Barack Obama

In 2008 presidential elections, Illinois senator
Barack Obama Barack Hussein Obama II (born August 4, 1961) is an American politician who was the 44th president of the United States from 2009 to 2017. A member of the Democratic Party, he was the first African American president in American history. O ...
became the first black presidential nominee of the Democratic Party, the first Black presidential candidate from a major political party. He was elected as the 44th
President of the United States The president of the United States (POTUS) is the head of state and head of government of the United States. The president directs the Federal government of the United States#Executive branch, executive branch of the Federal government of t ...
on November 4, 2008, and inaugurated on January 20, 2009. At least 95 percent of African-American voters voted for Obama. Obama won big among young and minority voters, bringing a number of new states to the Democratic electoral column. Obama became the first Democrat since
Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...
to win a popular vote majority. He also received overwhelming support from whites, a majority of Asians, and Americans of Hispanic origin. Obama lost the overall white vote, but he won a larger proportion of white votes than any previous non-incumbent Democratic presidential candidate since
Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...
.


Interracial marriages

Marriages between African-Americans and people of other races have significantly increased since all race-based legal restrictions on interracial marriage ended following '' Loving v. Virginia'' in 1967. The overall rate of marriages between African-Americans and non-Black spouses more than tripled between 1980 and 2015, from 5% to 18%.Pew Research Intermarriage in the U.S. 50 Years After Loving v. Virginia
May 18, 2017
24% of all Black male newlyweds married outside their race in 2015, compared to 12% of Black female newlyweds.


Economic situation

Nearly 25% of all black Americans live below the
poverty line The poverty threshold, poverty limit, poverty line, or breadline is the minimum level of income deemed adequate in a particular country. The poverty line is usually calculated by estimating the total cost of one year's worth of necessities for ...
in the early 21st century, approximately the same percentage as the percentage of all black Americans who lived below the poverty line in 1968. The child poverty rate has also increased among African Americans and their rate of unemployment is disproportionately high in comparison to the rate of unemployment among members of other ethnic groups. In public opinion, these sobering facts have sometimes been masked by the spectacular achievements of successful individuals. African Americans are underrepresented in the rapidly expanding and lucrative fields related to computer programming and technology, where innovations have led to some people making huge new fortunes. Economic progress for blacks' reaching the extremes of wealth has been slow. According to ''
Forbes ''Forbes'' () is an American business magazine founded by B. C. Forbes in 1917. It has been owned by the Hong Kong–based investment group Integrated Whale Media Investments since 2014. Its chairman and editor-in-chief is Steve Forbes. The co ...
'' "richest" lists,
Oprah Winfrey Oprah Gail Winfrey (; born Orpah Gail Winfrey; January 29, 1954) is an American television presenter, talk show host, television producer, actress, author, and media proprietor. She is best known for her talk show, ''The Oprah Winfrey Show' ...
was the richest African American of the 20th century and has been the world's only
black billionaire Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without chroma, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness.Eva Heller, ''P ...
in 2004, 2005, and 2006. Not only was Winfrey the world's only black billionaire but she has been the only black on the Forbes 400 list nearly every year since 1995. BET founder Bob Johnson briefly joined her on the list from 2001 to 2003 before his ex-wife acquired part of his fortune; although he returned to the list in 2006, he did not make it in 2007. Blacks currently comprise 0.25% of America's economic elite; they make up 13% of the total U.S. population.


Social issues

Despite the gains of the civil rights movement, other factors have resulted in African-American communities suffering from extremely high incarceration rates of their young males. Contributing factors have been the drug war waged by successive administrations, imposition of sentencing guidelines at the federal and state levels, cutbacks in government assistance, restructuring of industry since the mid-20th century and extensive loss of working-class jobs leading to high poverty rates, and government neglect, an erosion of African American two parent families, and unfavorable social policies. African Americans have the highest imprisonment rate of any major ethnic group in the United States and the world, and are sentenced to death at a rate higher than any other ethnic group. The southern states of the former Confederacy, which historically had maintained
slavery Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and residence dictated by the party that holds them in bondage. Enslavemen ...
longer than in the remainder of the country and imposed post-Reconstruction oppression, have the highest rates of incarceration and application of the
death penalty Capital punishment, also known as the death penalty and formerly called judicial homicide, is the state-sanctioned killing of a person as punishment for actual or supposed misconduct. The sentence ordering that an offender be punished in s ...
."One in 31: The Long Reach of American Corrections"
, Pew Research Center, released March 2, 2009


See also

* Timeline of African-American history * Timeline of the civil rights movement


References

{{US history