Peter Forsskål
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Peter Forsskål, sometimes spelled Pehr Forsskål, Peter Forskaol, Petrus Forskål or Pehr Forsskåhl (11 January 1732 – 11 July 1763) was a Swedish
explorer Exploration is the process of exploring, an activity which has some Expectation (epistemic), expectation of Discovery (observation), discovery. Organised exploration is largely a human activity, but exploratory activity is common to most organis ...
, orientalist,
naturalist Natural history is a domain of inquiry involving organisms, including animals, fungi, and plants, in their natural environment, leaning more towards observational than experimental methods of study. A person who studies natural history is cal ...
, and an apostle of Carl Linnaeus.


Early life

Forsskål was born in
Helsinki Helsinki () is the Capital city, capital and most populous List of cities and towns in Finland, city in Finland. It is on the shore of the Gulf of Finland and is the seat of southern Finland's Uusimaa region. About people live in the municipali ...
, now in
Finland Finland, officially the Republic of Finland, is a Nordic country in Northern Europe. It borders Sweden to the northwest, Norway to the north, and Russia to the east, with the Gulf of Bothnia to the west and the Gulf of Finland to the south, ...
but then a part of
Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...
, where his father, the priest , was serving as a Lutheran clergyman, but the family moved to Sweden in 1741 when the father was appointed to the parish of Tegelsmora in
Uppland Uppland is a historical province or ' on the eastern coast of Sweden, just north of Stockholm, the capital. It borders Södermanland, Västmanland and Gästrikland. It is also bounded by lake Mälaren and the Baltic Sea. The name literally ...
and the archdiocese of Uppsala. As was common at the time, he enrolled at
Uppsala University Uppsala University (UU) () is a public university, public research university in Uppsala, Sweden. Founded in 1477, it is the List of universities in Sweden, oldest university in Sweden and the Nordic countries still in operation. Initially fou ...
at a young age in 1742, but returned home for some time and, after studies on his own, rematriculated in Uppsala in 1751, where he completed a
theological Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of an ...
degree the same year.


Linnaeus's disciple

In Uppsala Forsskål was one of the students of
Linnaeus Carl Linnaeus (23 May 1707 – 10 January 1778), also known after ennoblement in 1761 as Carl von Linné,#Blunt, Blunt (2004), p. 171. was a Swedish biologist and physician who formalised binomial nomenclature, the modern system of naming o ...
, but apparently also studied with the orientalist Carl Aurivillius, whose contacts with the Göttingen orientalist Johann David Michaelis are probably the reason why Forsskål travelled to the
University of Göttingen The University of Göttingen, officially the Georg August University of Göttingen (, commonly referred to as Georgia Augusta), is a Public university, public research university in the city of Göttingen, Lower Saxony, Germany. Founded in 1734 ...
in 1753; he studied Oriental languages and Philosophy and completed a doctorate there with a dissertation entitled ''Dubia de principiis philosophiae recentioris'' (1756). Returning to Uppsala in 1756, he wanted to pursue studies in economics. In November 1759, he published a political pamphlet called, in Swedish, ''Tankar om borgerliga friheten'' (Thoughts on civil liberty). As it advocated complete
freedom of the press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic Media (communication), media, especially publication, published materials, shoul ...
, it was at the time controversial and was consequently suppressed by the authorities on the day of publication. The pamphlet was censored by the "
Hats A hat is a head covering which is worn for various reasons, including protection against weather conditions, ceremonial reasons such as university graduation, religious reasons, safety, or as a fashion accessory. Hats which incorporate mecha ...
" government and caused him to be warned by the Royal Chancellery.


Journey to Yemen and death

On Michaelis's recommendation, and with Linnaeus's approval, Forsskål the next year (1760) was appointed by
Frederick V of Denmark Frederick V (Danish language, Danish and Norwegian language, Norwegian: ''Frederik V''; 31 March 1723 – 14 January 1766) was King of Denmark–Norway, Denmark and Norway and Duke of Schleswig-Holstein from 6 August 1746 until his death in 1766. ...
to join, amongst others, the orientalist and mathematician
Carsten Niebuhr Carsten Niebuhr, or Karsten Niebuhr (17 March 1733 Cuxhaven, Lüdingworth – 26 April 1815 Meldorf, Dithmarschen), was a German mathematician, Cartography, cartographer, and Geographical exploration, explorer in the service of Denmark-Norway. He ...
on an expedition to Arabia. The group first went to
Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...
where they stayed for about a year, with Forsskål pursuing studies in
Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
dialect A dialect is a Variety (linguistics), variety of language spoken by a particular group of people. This may include dominant and standard language, standardized varieties as well as Vernacular language, vernacular, unwritten, or non-standardize ...
s, and arrived in South Arabia ( Arabia Felix, present-day
Yemen Yemen, officially the Republic of Yemen, is a country in West Asia. Located in South Arabia, southern Arabia, it borders Saudi Arabia to Saudi Arabia–Yemen border, the north, Oman to Oman–Yemen border, the northeast, the south-eastern part ...
) at the end of December 1762. Just 31 years old, Forsskål worked hard on collecting botanical and zoological specimens, but fell ill with
malaria Malaria is a Mosquito-borne disease, mosquito-borne infectious disease that affects vertebrates and ''Anopheles'' mosquitoes. Human malaria causes Signs and symptoms, symptoms that typically include fever, Fatigue (medical), fatigue, vomitin ...
and died in July 1763. He was buried at night in Yarim, Yemen. Linnaeus mourned the death of his young student and named one of the plants Forsskål had sent home '' Forsskaolea tenacissima'' because the plant was as stubborn and persistent as the young man had been. The entire journey of this Danish expedition was the subject of Thorkild Hansen's first book, ''Det lykkelige Arabien'' (1962, translated into English as '' Arabia Felix'').


Legacy

Forsskål's companion Niebuhr, who was the only one of the participants to survive the expedition, was entrusted with the care of editing his manuscripts, and published in 1775 ''Descriptiones Animalium – Avium, amphiborum, insectorum, vermium quæ in itinere orientali observavit Petrus Forskål''. In the same year his account of the plants of Yemen and of lower Egypt also appeared, under the title of ''Flora Ægyptiaco-Arabica sive descriptiones plantarum quas per Ægyptum Inferiorem et Arabiam felicem detexit, illustravit Petrus Forskål''. Most of his specimens were lost in transport or deteriorated due to bad storage in
Copenhagen Copenhagen ( ) is the capital and most populous city of Denmark, with a population of 1.4 million in the Urban area of Copenhagen, urban area. The city is situated on the islands of Zealand and Amager, separated from Malmö, Sweden, by the ...
; his
herbarium A herbarium (plural: herbaria) is a collection of preserved plant biological specimen, specimens and associated data used for scientific study. The specimens may be whole plants or plant parts; these will usually be in dried form mounted on a sh ...
was reconstructed some 150 years after his death by the botanist Carl Christensen. In his taxonomy work, Forsskål assigned the local Arabic name of the fish as the Latin species name: so they reflect the names used then (and now) on the coasts of the Red Sea for many species of fish. In his pamphlet, ''Thoughts on Civil Liberty'' (1759), Forsskål argues the case for civil liberties of the kind people in modern democracies take for granted. A sample (para 21):
Finally, another important right in any free society is the liberty to contribute to the Public Good. But for this to happen, it must be possible to make the state of affairs in society known to one and all, and everyone must be free to express their thoughts about it. Where this is lacking, liberty is not worth its name.
Shortly after its publication the pamphlet was banned, and Forsskål was forced into exile. But only seven years later, in 1766, freedom of the press was given protection in Swedish constitutional law – the first such legislation in world history. (Under the reign of Gustaf III Sweden fell back into repression. Freedom of the press was reinstated in the Constitution of 1809.)


Species named in his honor

The tiger fish '' Hydrocynus forskahlii'' was named in his honor by
Georges Cuvier Jean Léopold Nicolas Frédéric, baron Cuvier (23 August 1769 – 13 May 1832), known as Georges Cuvier (; ), was a French natural history, naturalist and zoology, zoologist, sometimes referred to as the "founding father of paleontology". Cuv ...
. Forsskål originally reported this species as ''Salmo (=Alestes) dentex'' in 1775. The
siphonophore Siphonophorae (from Ancient Greek σίφων (siphōn), meaning "tube" and -φόρος (-phóros), meaning "bearing") is an order within Hydrozoa, a class of marine organisms within the phylum Cnidaria. According to the World Register of Marine ...
'' Forskalia'' in the monotypic family Forskaliidae was named in his honor by Kölliker. The black sea cucumber '' Holothuria forskali'' was named in his honor by Delle Chiaje. The plant genus '' Forsskaolea'' L. was named in his honor. Many plants also bear his name in the epithet, among which : *'' Gymnosporia forsskaoliana'' (Sebsebe) Jordaan, Celastraceae. *'' Dracaena forskaliana'' (Schult. f.) Byng & Christenh., Asparagaceae. *'' Cynanchum forskaolianum'' (Schult.) Meve & Liede, Apocynaceae. *'' Viola forskaalii'' Greuter, Violaceae. *'' Centropodia forskaolii'' (Vahl) Cope, Poaceae. *'' Helichrysum forskahlii'' (J. F. Gmel.) Hilliard & B. L. Burtt, Asteraceae. *'' Aneilema forskaolii'' Kunth, Commelinaceae. *'' Ruellia forsskaolii'' Thulin, Acanthaceae. His name is one of those with most variants, as botanists are free to choose their latinization, and the transcription to the vowel å has varied through time.


Variant spellings of his name

In subsequent botanical works many different variants of his name were recorded (Forsskål, Forskål, Forskåhl, Forsskåhl, Forsskaal, Forskal, Forsskal, occasionally also Forsskaol). For citing the scientist's name it was recommended not to replace å by a. Family members in these times used three alternative spellings Forsskål, Forskål and Forsskåhl. Modern members of the family seem to prefer Forsskåhl. Peter's father and brother used the spelling Forsskåhl. Peter himself alternatively used Forsskål and Forsskaal, in approximately the same frequency, but the choice depended on the language of a letter's recipient. In one letter to England he once spelled his name Forsskol. Linnæus spelled Peter's name Forskåhl, not in agreement with the student's father. In publications issued during Peter's lifetime the spelling Forsskål was used, including in his dissertation issued in 1756 in
Göttingen Göttingen (, ; ; ) is a college town, university city in Lower Saxony, central Germany, the Capital (political), capital of Göttingen (district), the eponymous district. The River Leine runs through it. According to the 2022 German census, t ...
. In the important work ''Descriptiones animalium'' which was published 12 years after his death and which was attributed to him the spelling "Forskål" had been used. In current zoological sources both spellings Forskål and Forsskål are in use, Forskåhl and Forsskåhl are not used.AnimalBase reference summary for Forskål, P. 1775
/ref>


Publications

# ''Thoughts on Civil Liberty'' / ''Tankar om borgerliga friheten (1759)''. Stockholm: Bokförlaget Atlantis, 2009. . dited and translated by David Goldberg, Gunilla Jonsson, Helena Jäderblom, Gunnar Persson and Thomas von Vegesack, assisted by David Shaw.br>Swedish Wikisource
# * # * # * # ''Resa till lyklige Arabien''. 1950.


See also

* :Taxa named by Peter Forsskål


References


External links

*Boo
''Flora Aegyptiaco-Arabica''
by Peter Forskål, year 1775, in Latin. *Boo
''Descriptiones animalium ... quæ in itinere orientali''
by Peter Forskål, year 1775, in Latin. *Boo
''Icones rerum naturalium quas in itinere orientali''
by Peter Forskål, year 1776, in Latin.

with links to other web sites on him, and includes how he used Arabic names for species names.

Royal Library, Copenhagen, Oriental collections - mainly on Forsskål's contributions to the knowledge of Arabian pharmacognosy
Thoughts on Civil Liberty
in Swedish, and translations in English, French, German, Spanish, Ukrainian, and other languages translations of Forsskal's original (uncensored) manuscript. * {{DEFAULTSORT:Forsskal, Peter Swedish naturalists Swedish taxonomists 1732 births 1763 deaths 18th-century Swedish botanists 18th-century Swedish zoologists Swedish phycologists Swedish pteridologists Swedish explorers Swedish orientalists Botanists active in Egypt Botanists with author abbreviations Uppsala University alumni Scientists from Helsinki Age of Liberty people 18th-century explorers Deaths from malaria Swedish expatriates in Egypt Swedish expatriates in Yemen Swedish people of Finnish descent Swedish-speaking Finns Natural history of Palestine (region)