The People's Liberation Army – PLA (

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

: جيش التحرير الشعبي , ''Jayish al-Tahrir al-Sha'aby''), also known as the Armée populaire de libération (APL) in

French French may refer to: * Something of, from, or related to France ** French language, which originated in France ** French people, a nation and ethnic group ** French cuisine, cooking traditions and practices Arts and media * The French (band), ...

or Forces of the Martyr Kamal Jumblatt (

: قوات الشهيد كمال جنبلاط , ''Quwwat al-Shahid Kamal Junblat''), was the military wing of the

left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social ...

Druze The Druze ( ; , ' or ', , '), who Endonym and exonym, call themselves al-Muwaḥḥidūn (), are an Arabs, Arab Eastern esotericism, esoteric Religious denomination, religious group from West Asia who adhere to the Druze faith, an Abrahamic ...

Progressive Socialist Party The Progressive Socialist Party () is a Lebanese political party. Its confessional base is in the Druze sect and its regional base is in Mount Lebanon Governorate, especially the Chouf District. Founded by Kamal Jumblatt in 1949, the party ...

(PSP), which fought in the

Lebanese Civil War The Lebanese Civil War ( ) was a multifaceted armed conflict that took place from 1975 to 1990. It resulted in an estimated 150,000 fatalities and led to the exodus of almost one million people from Lebanon. The religious diversity of the ...

. The PSP and its militia were members of the

Lebanese National Movement The Lebanese National Movement (LNM; , ''Al-Harakat al-Wataniyya al-Lubnaniyya'') was a front of Leftist, pan-Arabist and Syrian nationalist parties and organizations active during the early years of the Lebanese Civil War, which supported ...

(LNM) from 1975 to 1982 and its successor, the

Lebanese National Resistance Front The Lebanese National Resistance Front (LNRF; ), best known by its Arabic acronym, ‘Jammoul’ (جمول), was a leftist alliance led by Walid Jumblatt’s Progressive Socialist Party, active in Lebanon from the 1982-1990 phase of the Civil ...

(LNRF) from 1983 to 1990.

Emblem

First adopted in 1976 and modified in 1977–78, the PLA official emblem consisted of a red flag with a white square on the centre, featuring a crossed

dip pen A dip pen is a writing instrument used to apply ink to paper. It usually consists of a metal nib (pen), nib with a central slit that acts as a capillary action, capillary channel like those of fountain pen nibs, mounted in a handle or holder, ofte ...

and

pickaxe A pickaxe, pick-axe, or pick is a generally T-shaped hand tool used for Leverage (mechanics), prying. Its head is typically metal, attached perpendicularly to a longer handle, traditionally made of wood, occasionally metal, and increasingly ...

superimposed on an

AK-47 The AK-47, officially known as the Avtomat Kalashnikova (; also known as the Kalashnikov or just AK), is an assault rifle that is chambered for the 7.62×39mm cartridge. Developed in the Soviet Union by Russian small-arms designer Mikhail Kala ...

assault rifle An assault rifle is a select fire rifle that uses an intermediate cartridge, intermediate-rifle cartridge and a Magazine (firearms), detachable magazine.C. Taylor, ''The Fighting Rifle: A Complete Study of the Rifle in Combat'', F.A. Moyer '' ...

in the middle standing upwards, all in silver, inserted on a golden circular wreath, the latter consisting of two interlocking branches and leaves of the

Oak tree An oak is a hardwood tree or shrub in the genus ''Quercus'' of the Fagaceae, beech family. They have spirally arranged leaves, often with lobed edges, and a nut called an acorn, borne within a cup. The genus is widely distributed in the Northe ...

and the Lebanese Cedar tree.Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 107.

Origins

Although the PSP was officially a

secular Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin , or or ), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. The origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself. The concept was fleshed out through Christian hi ...

political party, its military wing was not only well-organized, but also one of the largest

sectarian Sectarianism is a debated concept. Some scholars and journalists define it as pre-existing fixed communal categories in society, and use it to explain political, cultural, or religious conflicts between groups. Others conceive of sectarianism a ...

militias in Lebanon. It was first founded unofficially by the Party's president, the za'im (political boss)

Kamal Jumblatt Kamal Fouad Jumblatt (; 6 December 1917 – 16 March 1977) was a Lebanese politician who founded the Progressive Socialist Party. He led the National Movement during the Lebanese Civil War. He was a major ally of the Palestine Liberation Organ ...

at the height of the 1958 Civil War with a strength of about 1,000–2,000 militiamen, which fought alongside the

Pan-Arab Pan-Arabism () is a pan-nationalist ideology that espouses the unification of all Arab people in a single nation-state, consisting of all Arab countries of West Asia and North Africa from the Atlantic Ocean to the Arabian Sea, which is ref ...

/leftist anti-government forces against the

Lebanese Army The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF; ), also known as the Lebanese Army (), is the national military of the Republic of Lebanon. It consists of three branches, the ground forces, the air force, and the navy. The motto of the Lebanese Armed Forces is ...

, and the pro-government conservative Christian and Muslim militias in

Beirut Beirut ( ; ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Lebanon. , Greater Beirut has a population of 2.5 million, just under half of Lebanon's population, which makes it the List of largest cities in the Levant region by populatio ...

and the

Chouf District Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf; ) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate ( muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon. Geography Located south-east of Beirut, the region comprises a narrow coastal stri ...

. Disbanded upon the conclusion of the war, the PSP was left without an official paramilitary branch until the early 1970s, when – despite Kamal Jumblatt's initial reluctance to engage in paramilitarism – the Party's leadership board decided to quietly raise a new militia force with the help of the

Palestine Liberation Organization The Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO; ) is a Palestinian nationalism, Palestinian nationalist coalition that is internationally recognized as the official representative of the Palestinians, Palestinian people in both the occupied Pale ...

or PLO (mainly from

Fatah Fatah ( ; ), formally the Palestinian National Liberation Movement (), is a Palestinian nationalist and Arab socialist political party. It is the largest faction of the confederated multi-party Palestine Liberation Organization (PLO) and ...

, PFLP and DPFLP) in response to the Christian rightist Parties' own clandestine military build-up. Initial progress was slow, however, since the PSP under Kamal Jumblatt had no regular militiamen, but relied mostly on its Druze irregulars, which could be mobilised when needed. Because of the secrecy surrounding the formation of its military wing, the PSP was only able to gather 175-185 militiamen, most of them drawn from an existing Boy Scout organization, and each recruit had to finance himself.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), p. 26. The weapons that these fighters used, usually a left-over from the PLO or a regional country, were obsolete, somewhat basic and in short supply, as Jumblatt had neither the means nor the will to invest heavily in his new militia.Rabah, ''Conflict on Mount Lebanon: The Druze, the Maronites and Collective Memory'' (2020), p. 153. From 1971 to 1974, this initial intake of young recruits was trained by a Druze medical doctor and former officer in the Mexican Special Forces, Colonel

Ghazi Karami Ghazi or Gazi (), a title given to Muslim warriors or champions and used by several Ottoman Sultans, may refer to: *Ghazi (warrior), an Islamic term for the Muslim soldier who come wounded from battle People Given name *Ghazi of Iraq (1912–19 ...

, who manned an advanced

Commando A commando is a combatant, or operative of an elite light infantry or special operations force, specially trained for carrying out raids and operating in small teams behind enemy lines. Originally, "a commando" was a type of combat unit, as oppo ...

course at a PSP-run secret training camp set up near

Choueifat Choueifat (, also transliterated Shuwayfat) is one of the biggest and most important cities in southeast of Beirut in Lebanon. The city is a Druze enclave that lies on the eastern side of Beirut's airport. The local population of the city is made ...

in the

Aley District Aley () is a district (''qadaa'') in Mount Lebanon, Lebanon, to the south-east of the Lebanon's capital Beirut. The capital is Aley. Aley city was previously known as the "bride of the summers" during the 1960 and 1970s, when Aley and neighbor ...

.Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 16. Eventually, the group of 185 highly trained fighters that graduated from the course in 1974 with excellent military skills and tactics went to provide the founding cadre for the PSP's first unconventional warfare unit, which was given the title Popular Commandos Forces – PCF (

: قوات الكوماندوز الشعبية , ''Quwwat al-Kumanduz al-Sha'abya''). Led by Ramez Assaf, they first saw action in Beirut during the

Battle of the Hotels The Battle of the Hotels (, ''Maʿrakah al-Fanādiq'') was a subconflict within the 1975–77 phase of the Lebanese Civil War that occurred in the Minet-el-Hosn hotel district of downtown Beirut. This area was one of the first major battles of ...

in 1975-76.Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 13. Under Kamal Jumblatt's leadership, the PSP was a major element in the

(LNM) alliance, which supported the recognition of Lebanon's Arab identity and sympathised with the Palestinians. When the

broke out in April 1975, as a member of the LNM the PSP and its small PCF militia were active founders of the movement's military wing, the Joint Forces (LNM-JF). On 7 August 1976, following an open appeal by Kamal Jumblatt urging Lebanese Muslim youths to join the LNM-JF militias, the PSP's own military wing was re-organized and expanded to a force not exceeding 400 men, being officially established as the Popular Liberation Forces – PLF (

: قوات التحرير الشعبية , ''Quwwat al-Tahrir al-Sha'abya'').Rabah, ''Conflict on Mount Lebanon: The Druze, the Maronites and Collective Memory'' (2020), p. 154. In the process, the PLF absorbed the PCF which was integrated in the newly created structure as the Tanukh Brigade (

: لواء تنوخ , ''Liwa' Tanukh''). The name 'Tanukh' clearly indicated Kamal Jumblatt's wish to link his current political venture to that of the early Druze Tanukhid settlers tasked with defending the Lebanese coast against foreign invasions during the

Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...

. In any case, this brigade was the basis for many of the fighting units that were formed in PSP-affiliated areas, especially those engaged in combat at this early stage. The PLF continued to expand and by early 1977, it mustered 2,500–3,000 lightly armed fighters drawn from the

and

Shia Muslim Shia Islam is the second-largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad in Islam, Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political Succession to Muhammad, successor (caliph) and as the spiritual le ...

communities of the Chouf, although other sources place its numbers as high as 5,000.Bicard, ''Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias'' (1999), p. 9. Nevertheless, it was not until the death of Kamal Jumblatt in 1977, that a process to build a real military structure was set in motion in collaboration with the

Soviet Union The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

and Syria. On a military level both the Soviets and the Syrians took the PSP under their wing and gradually transformed its PLF militia into a proper army, with modern training and unrestricted access to weaponry when needed. The transformation of the PSP militia into an organised fighting unit was entrusted to Raja Harb, a Druze

Lieutenant (later, Major), who supervised training programs and military equipment deliveries to PLF units in Lebanon. All these developments allowed Walid Joumblatt to finally declare on 1 June 1978 the founding of the People's Liberation Army – Forces of the Martyr Kamal Jumblatt (PLA – FMKL). The

Lebanese Druze The Lebanese Druze () are an ethnoreligious group constituting about 5.2 percentBashir Gemayel Bachir Pierre Gemayel (, ; 10 November 1947 – 14 September 1982) was a Lebanese militia commander who led the Lebanese Forces, the military wing of the Kataeb Party, in the Lebanese Civil War and was elected President of Lebanon in 1982. ...

and his newly unified

Lebanese Forces The Lebanese Forces ( ') is a Lebanon, Lebanese Christianity in Lebanon, Christian-based political party and Lebanese Forces (militia), former militia during the Lebanese Civil War. It currently holds 19 of the 128 seats in Lebanon's Parliamen ...

(LF) Christian militia backed by

Israel Israel, officially the State of Israel, is a country in West Asia. It Borders of Israel, shares borders with Lebanon to the north, Syria to the north-east, Jordan to the east, Egypt to the south-west, and the Mediterranean Sea to the west. Isr ...

Military structure and organization

In 1975–77 the PLA was a predominantly infantry force, with the basic combat unit being a militia group of about 50 men, in some cases drawn entirely from one extended family, loosely organized into larger company-sized formations provided with light

weapons A weapon, arm, or armament is any implement or device that is used to deter, threaten, inflict physical damage, harm, or kill. Weapons are used to increase the efficacy and efficiency of activities such as hunting, crime (e.g., murder), law ...

drawn from PLO stocks or pilfered from LAF and ISF

barracks Barracks are buildings used to accommodate military personnel and quasi-military personnel such as police. The English word originates from the 17th century via French and Italian from an old Spanish word 'soldier's tent', but today barracks ar ...

. There was no strict chain of command and no set hierarchy existed in the PLA, although Walid Jumblatt usually delegated responsibilities to commanders at various echelons in the militia's organization. In fact, PLA unit, sector or corps' commanders were chosen by consensus as a result of courage displayed in combat, leadership ability, or family ties. Many of these selected commanders had formal military training, being former Lebanese Army officers who had joined the Druze PSP militia when the LAF split under confessional lines in January 1976. After suffering casualties during the Israeli invasion of Lebanon of June 1982, the PLA was quietly re-organized late that year by

Walid Jumblatt Walid Kamal Jumblatt (; born 7 August 1949) is a Lebanese politician who was the leader of the Progressive Socialist Party from 1977 until 2023. A Druze and former militia commander, Jumblatt led the Lebanese National Resistance Front, allying ...

, who turned it into a disciplined fighting force provided with Soviet-made armoured vehicles and artillery. Headquartered at the

town of

Baakline Baakleen, also spelled Baaqlîne or Baakline (), is a prominent Druze town located in the Chouf District of Mount Lebanon, about 45 kilometers southeast of Beirut, Lebanon. Situated at an elevation of 850 to 920 meters, it has a population of ar ...

in the

Chouf Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf; ) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate ( muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon. Geography Located south-east of Beirut, the region comprises a narrow coastal stri ...

, the PSP militia by 1983 aligned 16,000–17,000 troops, consisting of 5,000–6,000 uniformed regulars backed by 12,000 male and female reservists, staffed and led by a qualified, professionally-trained Officer corps. Whereas the PLA regular fighters were organized into conventionally-structured companies and battalions, the PSP militia own reserve was based on a system of interlocking irregular village defense companies arranged so that each fighter defended his own home. This arrangement was particularly suited to the clan-based Druze community, where allegiance usually is based on the individual's perception of family interests. During the heavy clashes occurred in September 1983 in the

Chouf district Chouf (also spelled Shouf, Shuf or Chuf; ) is a historic region of Lebanon, as well as an administrative district in the governorate ( muhafazat) of Mount Lebanon. Geography Located south-east of Beirut, the region comprises a narrow coastal stri ...

, the Druze village-based reserve companies and the PLA's regular battalions proved able to coordinate their activities, holding successfully their ground against both the Lebanese Army and the Christian LF militia. In addition to mobilizing Druze civilian volunteers with no prior military experience, the PLA also absorbed many Druze regular soldiers which had served with the

Lebanese Arab Army The Lebanese Arab Army – LAA (Arabic: جيش لبنان العربي transliteration ''Jayish Lubnan al-Arabi''), also known variously as the Arab Army of Lebanon (AAL) and Arab Lebanese Army or Army of Arab Lebabon or Armée arabe du Liban ( ...

(LAA) upon its forceful disbandment in 1977-78, being subsequently enlarged in the wake of the

Mountain War The Mountain War ( , ''Harb al-Jabal)'', also known as the War of the Mountain, was a subconflict between the Lebanese Civil War#Second phase of the war.2C 1982-1983, 1982–83 and the Lebanese Civil War#Third phase of the war.2C 1984-1989, 19 ...

with the inclusion of a number of Druze officers, NCOs and enlisted men from the Lebanese Army's Fourth Brigade after its disintegration in February 1984. During that conflict, the PLA also received the active support of the 1,800 men-strong, primarily Druze Eleventh Brigade commanded by Colonel Amin Qadi, stationed at

Hammana Hammana () is a town in Lebanon, about 26 km (16 miles) east of Beirut. At an altitude of 1200 m (about 4000 ft) above sea level, Hammana is in the Mount Lebanon Governorate in the district (or Caza) of Baabda. Hammana is bordered by th ...

and

Beiteddine Beit ed-Dine (), also known as Btaddine () is a small town and the administrative capital of the Chouf District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate in Lebanon. The town is located 45 kilometers southeast of Beirut, and near the town of Deir el-Q ...

. Although its membership and command structure was predominantly Druze, the PLA did included a number of

Sunnis Sunni Islam is the largest Islamic schools and branches, branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any Succession to Muhammad, successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr ...

and

Shi'ites Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...

in their ranks; most Druze recruits continued to come from the Mountain and, until the return of the

Syrian Army The Syrian Army is the land force branch of the Syrian Armed Forces. Up until the fall of the Assad regime, the Syrian Arab Army existed as a land force branch of the Syrian Arab Armed Forces, which dominanted the military service of the fo ...

in 1987, from the Sanayeh (Kantari District) and the seafront quarters of West Beirut. Under the command of Major Raja Harb, from 1978 until the end of the civil war in 1990, the PSP militia annually had about 150 men in the USSR, at the two main training facilities run by the Soviet Main Directorate of International Military Cooperation, the Higher Military Combined Command Engineering School of Air Defense and the Higher United Military School in the

Odessa ODESSA is an American codename (from the German language, German: ''Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen'', meaning: Organization of Former SS Members) coined in 1946 to cover Ratlines (World War II aftermath), Nazi underground escape-pl ...

, and the Simferopol United Military School on the

Crimea Crimea ( ) is a peninsula in Eastern Europe, on the northern coast of the Black Sea, almost entirely surrounded by the Black Sea and the smaller Sea of Azov. The Isthmus of Perekop connects the peninsula to Kherson Oblast in mainland Ukrain ...

. In the winter of 1978, the first group of 52 Druze officer cadets arrived in the USSR, to be exposed to various military courses ranging from the School of Infantry to the more advanced Command and Staff College. Following their return, these skilled fighters formed the cadres in the PSP training camps set up throughout the

, where they transferred the skills they had acquired to a large number of future combatants. On some of these camps, the Soviet-trained Druze instructors were assisted by several Syrian military advisors sent by

Hafez al-Assad Hafez al-Assad (6 October 193010 June 2000) was a Syrian politician and military officer who was the president of Syria from 1971 until Death and state funeral of Hafez al-Assad, his death in 2000. He was previously the Prime Minister of Syria ...

to support his new ally Walid Jumblatt. Other Druze officer cadets received their instruction in a PSP-run Military School set up at the town of Debbiyeh, also in the

. In 1986-87,

agreed to lend 2,000 PSP/PLA troops to the Libyan President Colonel

Muammar Gaddafi Muammar Muhammad Abu Minyar al-Gaddafi (20 October 2011) was a Libyan military officer, revolutionary, politician and political theorist who ruled Libya from 1969 until Killing of Muammar Gaddafi, his assassination by Libyan Anti-Gaddafi ...

to fight alongside the

Libyan Army The Libyan Army () is the brand for a number of separate military forces in Libya, which were under the command of the internationally recognised Government of National Accord (GNA) and the Government of National Unity (GNU). Since December 20 ...

in the Chadian–Libyan conflict, as part of a aid package deal that included much-needed financing for the PSP troops in

Lebanon Lebanon, officially the Republic of Lebanon, is a country in the Levant region of West Asia. Situated at the crossroads of the Mediterranean Basin and the Arabian Peninsula, it is bordered by Syria to the north and east, Israel to the south ...

. In the end, only a small contingent of 120 Druze officers and enlisted men was actually sent to Libya, but they were never used in their intended role of fighting the Chadians; instead, the PLA contingent underwent a regimented training programme in basic infantry, armour, and artillery tactics, manned by Soviet and East German advisors. Upon the conclusion of their instruction cycle, they were provided by the Libyans with a considerable haul of Soviet-made heavy weapons, including tanks, tracked and wheeled APCs, MBRLs, and

SPAAG An anti-aircraft vehicle, also known as a self-propelled anti-aircraft gun (SPAAG) or self-propelled air defense system (SPAD), is a mobile vehicle with a dedicated anti-aircraft capability. Specific weapon systems used include machine guns, ...

s, before returning to

by ship to the PSP-controlled port of

Jieh Jieh (or Jiyé, Jiyeh, ) is a seaside town in Lebanon with an estimated population of 5000, 23 km south of Beirut, in the Chouf District via a 20-minute drive along the Beirut to Sidon highway south of the capital. In Phoenician times, it was ...

in the

Iqlim al-Kharrub Iqlim el-Kharrub (Arabic: إقليم الخرّوب) is a geographic region in the western part of the Chouf District. Its inhabitants are mostly Sunni Muslims. Geographic definition Iqlim al-Kharrub is a historical and socio-cultural region in t ...

coastal enclave.

Field organization

PLA armored, "Commando", infantry, and artillery units were organized into independent formations deployed to a specific area of military operations or "Sector" (

: ''Qitay''), seven of which were formed upon the establishment of the Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) in August 1976, and doubled as Regional Commands. Each "Sector" was assigned a "Commando" company and an infantry company, both of which were raised locally and grouped together into a battalion- or regimental-sized combat task-force termed a "Brigade" (

: ''Liwa''), plus an attached

Military Police Military police (MP) are law enforcement agencies connected with, or part of, the military of a state. Not to be confused with civilian police, who are legally part of the civilian populace. In wartime operations, the military police may supp ...

Brigade (actually, a Battalion). By February 1984, the PLA aligned eight such "Brigades" that fielded eight "Commando" companies and eight assorted infantry companies, and eight Military Police "Brigades", with their respective "Sectors" being organized as follows: * The Beirut Sector (

: قطاع بيروت , ''Qitay Bayrut'') – Beirut Brigade (

: لواء بيروت , ''Liwa' Bayrut'') * The Aley Sector (

: قطاع عاليه , ''Qitay Alyh'') – Aley Brigade (

: لواء عاليه , ''Liwa' Alyh'') * The Choueifat Sector (

: قطاع الشويفات , ''Qitay al-Shuwayfat'') – Choueifat Brigade (

: لواء الشويفات , ''Liwa' al-Shuwayfat'') * The North Sector (

: قطاع الشمال , ''Qitay al-Shamal'') – North Brigade (

: لواء الشمال , ''Liwa' al-Shamal'') * The South Sector (

: قطاع الجنوب , ''Qitay al-Janub'') – South Brigade (

: لواء الجنوب , ''Liwa' al-Janub'') * The Beqaa Sector (

: قطاع البقاع , ''Qitay al-Biqaa'') – Beqaa Brigade (

: لواء البقاع , ''Liwa' al-Biqaa'') * The Tripoli Sector (

: قطاع طرابلس , ''Qitay Tarabulus'') – Tripoli Brigade (

: لواء طرابلس , ''Liwa' Tarabulus'') * The Border Sector (

: قطاع الحدود , ''Qitay al-Hudud'') – Border Brigade (

: لواء حرس الحدود , ''Liwa' Haras al-Hudud'')

Branches of service

In 1983-84, Walid Jumblatt reestructed the PLA along conventional lines, comprising several branches of service and support units, organized into seven (subsequently augmented to nine) brigade-sized formations termed "Corps" (

: ''Silah''), whilst its branches and specialized technical services consisted of: * The Infantry Corps (

: سلاح المشاة , ''Silah al-Moushat'') – First formed in 1978 and re-organized in 1984. * The Armored Corps (

: سلاح مدرع , ''Silah al-Moudara'a'') – Established in 1984. * The Artillery Corps (

: سلاح المدفعية , ''Silah al-Madfa'aiya'') – Established in 1984. * The Anti-Aircraft Corps (

: سلاح مضاد للطائرات , ''Silah Moudadoun lil Tayirat'') – Established in 1984. * The Rocket Corps (

: سلاح الصواريخ , ''Silah al-Sawarikh'') – Established in 1984. * The Signal Corps (

: فيلق الإشارة , ''Faylaq al-Ichara'') – Established in 1984. * The Logistics Corps (

: سلاح اللوجستيات , ''Silah al-luwjustayat'') – Established in 1984. * The Engineering and Support Regiment (

: فوج الهندسة والدعم , ''Fawj al-Hindasat Waldem'') – Established in 1984. * The Security Police Corps (

: فيلق شرطة الأمن , ''Faylaq Shurtat al-Amn'') – The PLA regular provost corps, established in 1984, which served both as

and as a

Gendarmerie A gendarmerie () is a paramilitary or military force with law enforcement duties among the civilian population. The term ''gendarme'' () is derived from the medieval French expression ', which translates to " men-at-arms" (). In France and so ...

in Druze-controlled areas to maintain law and order.

Elite units

* The Tanukh Brigade – PLA "Commando" and

Special Operations Special operations or special ops are military activities conducted, according to NATO, by "specially designated, organized, selected, trained, and equipped forces using unconventional techniques and modes of employment." Special operations ma ...

unit specialized in

unconventional warfare Unconventional warfare (UW) is broadly defined as "military and quasi-military operations other than conventional warfare" and may use covert forces or actions such as subversion, diversion, sabotage, espionage, biowarfare, sanctions, propaga ...

. * The Jal el Bahr "Commando" Company (

: شركة جل البحر كوماندوز , ''Sharikat Jal el-Bahr Kumanduz'') – Formed in 1978 and based at Jal el Bahr in the Ain el-Mreisseh seafront quarter of Dar el-Mreisseh district in

West Beirut West Beirut is a term referring to the western part of Beirut, the Lebanese capital, which became popular during the Lebanese Civil War that lasted from 1975 to 1990, when the city was divided along sectarian lines into two main areas: West Beiru ...

, this Soviet-trained "Commando" company included a Combat Swimmer and Maritime Special Operations detachment, specialized in seaborne infiltration and

reconnaissance In military operations, military reconnaissance () or scouting is the exploration of an area by military forces to obtain information about enemy forces, the terrain, and civil activities in the area of operations. In military jargon, reconnai ...

.Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), pp. 40-41. * The 1st Naval Regiment (

: أول فوج بحري , ''Awal Fawj Bahriin'') * The War of 1958 Veterans' association (

: حرب 1958 جمعية المحاربين القدامى , ''Harb 1958 Jameiat al-Muharibin al-Qudama'a'') – Also known as the Rebels of 58 (

: متمردو 58 , ''Mutamaridu 58''), this reserve unit comprised elderly Druze irregulars who had previously fought in the 1958 Civil War and were engaged in the Mountain War in 1983-84.Rabah, ''Conflict on Mount Lebanon: The Druze, the Maronites and Collective Memory'' (2020), p. 284. * The Forces of Abu-Ibrahim (

: قوات ابو ابراهيم , ''Quwwat Abu Ibrahim'') – Contingent of Druze fighting clerics (''Sheikhs'') that fought in the Mountain War. On 14 February 1984, in what was dubbed "Operation Sayyid Abdallah al-Tanukhi", the Druze Sheikhs participated alongside PLA regulars in the attack that seized all the LF and Lebanese Army positions in the Shahhar-El-Gharbi region southeast of

Mount Lebanon Mount Lebanon (, ; , ; ) is a mountain range in Lebanon. It is about long and averages above in elevation, with its peak at . The range provides a typical alpine climate year-round. Mount Lebanon is well-known for its snow-covered mountains, ...

and liberated the Mausoleum of

Sayyid Abdallah al-Tanukhi ''Sayyid'' is an honorific title of Hasanid and Husaynid lineage, recognized as descendants of the Islamic prophet Muhammad through his daughter Fatima and Ali's sons Hasan and Husayn. The title may also refer to the descendants of the fami ...

Military facilities

* PLA "Commando" School (

) – Established earlier in 1971, it was primarily tasked of training the PLA's "Commando" troops. * PLA Military School ( Debbiyeh,

) – Main training facility of the PLA, which housed its Military Academy to train Officer cadets, the

Non-commissioned officer A non-commissioned officer (NCO) is an enlisted rank, enlisted leader, petty officer, or in some cases warrant officer, who does not hold a Commission (document), commission. Non-commissioned officers usually earn their position of authority b ...

(NCO) School and the Military Police Academy. * Jal el Bahr Barracks (Dar el-Mreisseh district, West Beirut) – Established in 1978 and allocated in an unfinished apartment building at the Jal el Bahr seafront quarter, this was the main PLA depot in the Lebanese capital, and the headquarters of the Jal el Bahr "Commando" Company. * Saïd el-Khateeb Barracks (

Baabda District Baabda District (, transliteration: ''Qada' Baabda''), sometimes spelled ''B'abda'', is a district (''qadaa'') of Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon, to the south and east of the Lebanon's capital Beirut. The region is also popularly known as "Sou ...

) – Headquarters of the Lebanese Army's Druze Eleventh Brigade. * Maasraiti vehicle park (

) – Central parking area where the PLA kept most of its armoured and transport vehicles. * PLA Engineering and repair depot (Tarchich,

) – Run by the Engineering and Support Regiment, it housed the PLA's main repair and maintenance wokshops.

List of PLA Commanders

(1975–1977) *

(1977–1990)

PLA Junior Commanders

* Colonel

* Lieutenant Colonel

Sharif Fayad Sharīf or Sherif (, 'noble', 'highborn'), also spelled shareef, feminine sharīfa (), plural ashrāf (), shurafāʾ (), or (in the Maghreb) shurfāʾ, is a title used to designate a person descended, or claiming to be descended, from the famil ...

Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 109. * Major Raja Harb * Major Anwar al-Fatayri – PLA's Commissioner for Mobilisation. * Riyad Taqi al-Din * Ramez Assaf – Commander of the PLA Tanukh "Commando" Brigade.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), pp. 6; 26. * Saleh al-Deek – Deputy Commander of the Popular Liberation Forces in the Aley Sector. *

Hatem Bou Kheir Hatem () is a masculine Arabic given name. Given name * Hatem Khaled (born 2006) Egyptian Art director * Hatem Ali (1962–2020), Syrian actor * Hatem Aqel (born 1978), Jordanian footballer * Hatem Ben Arfa (born 1987), French football player of T ...

– Commander of the PLA Jal el Bahr "Commando" Company in West Beirut. *

Ghanem Tarabay Ghanem is an Arabic masculine given name and a surname. The Ghanem family is descended from Jafna ibn Amr of the Azd, Azd Dynasty, one of the oldest Pre-Islamic communities that inhabited southwestern Arabia, mainly Yemen, and the Al-Bahah and 'As ...

– Commander of the PLA forces in the Maten region. * Fadi al-Ghraizi – Commander of the PLA forces in the Jurd region. * Toufic BarakatHokayem, ''L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985)'' (2012), p. 102, note 170. * Alaaeddine Terro *

Issam Aintrazi Issam is an Arabic name. Notable people with the name include: * Issam (rapper) (born 1993), Moroccan rapper * Issam Abdallah (1986–2023) was a Lebanese video journalist * Issam Abdulhadi (1928–2013), Palestinian women’s rights activist * Is ...

(a.k.a. 'Abu Said') – Commander of the Beirut Sector. *

Haitham al-Jurdy Haytham, Haitham or Haitem () male given name meaning "hawk". It is highly popular among Middle Eastern communities. Notable people with this name include: * Ibn al-Haytham (965-1040), Mesopotamian Muslim polymath * Haytham I, Shirvanshah (r. ...

(a.k.a. 'Abu al-Shahid') – Commander of the Choueifat Sector. *

Jamal Saab Jamaal ( ''/'') is an Arabic given name and surname meaning "beauty."Jamaal
at BehindTheName.com It is popular in th ...

* Hussein Kerbaj *

Raja Fakhreddin Raja (; from , IAST ') is a noble or royal Sanskrit title historically used by some Indian rulers and monarchs and highest-ranking nobles. The title was historically used in the Indian subcontinent and Southeast Asia. The title has a long ...

Ramzi Al-Rayess Ramzi or Ramzy () is a masculine given name and surname of Arabic origin. It may refer to: Given name ;Ramzi * Ramzi Abed (born 1973), American film director, founder of "Bloodshot Pictures" and founding member of the electronic group, Elektracity ...

– Commander of the Aley Sector.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), p. 8. * Kamil Mahmoud – Head of the security apparatus of PSP President Walid Jumblatt. *

Nadim Bou Harfouch Nadeem/Nadim/Nadiem/Nedim () is an Arabic masculine given name. It means "best friend of the drinker", "companion", "confidant", or "friend". The name is common among many communities, including Christians, Muslims and Jews, in the Greater Middle ...

Hassan al-Beaini Hassan, Hasan, Hassane, Haasana, Hassaan, Asan, Hassun, Hasun, Hassen, Hasson or Hasani may refer to: People *Hassan (given name), Arabic given name and a list of people with that given name *Hassan (surname), Arabic, Jewish, Irish, and Scotti ...

– Commander of the PLA Security Police Corps. * Mohamad Awad – Commander of the Arab al-Maslakh company of the PLA Security Police Corps.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), p. 88. *

Hussein al-Khatib Bibi Hussein, Hossein, Hussain, Hossain, Huseyn, Husayn, Husein, Hussin, Hoessein, Houcine, Hocine or Husain (; ), coming from the triconsonantal root Ḥ-S-N (), is an Arabic name which is the diminutive of Hassan, meaning "good", "handsome" or ...

– Deputy Commander of the Arab al-Maslakh company of the PLA Security Police Corps. *

Jamal Ammar Jamaal ( ''/'') is an Arabic given name and surname meaning "beauty."Jamaal
at BehindTheName.com It is popular in th ...

(a.k.a. 'Abu Ammar') – subordinate unit Commander of the PLA Security Police Corps. *

Zouhair Bou Chahine Zouhair Ahmad Abdallah (; born 5 May 1983) is a Lebanese former footballer who played as a defender. Abdallah played his entire senior career at Shabab Sahel, between 2004 and 2023. He played twice for the Lebanon national team in 2011: a fr ...

Administrative organization and illegal activities

The stronghold of the PSP/PLA laid in the Jabal Barouk area within the Chouf, which they turned into a semi-autonomous

Canton Canton may refer to: Administrative divisions * Canton (administrative division), territorial/administrative division in some countries * Township (Canada), known as ''canton'' in Canadian French Arts and entertainment * Canton (band), an It ...

in the early 1980s, known unofficially as the 'Druze Mountain' (

: ''Jabal al-Duruz''). Centred at the Druze town of

– the PSP's political and military HQ – the canton comprised the

Aley Aley () is a major city in Lebanon. It is the capital of the Aley District and fourth largest city in Lebanon. The city is located on Mount Lebanon, 15km uphill from Beirut on the freeway to Damascus. Aley has the nickname "Bride of the Summ ...

and

s, including the historic towns of

Moukhtara Moukhtara () is a small town in the Chouf District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate of Lebanon. The town's inhabitants are divided between Druze and Maronites. It is the hometown of Walid Jumblatt, the leader of Lebanon's Progressive Socialist ...

(the Jumblatt family's feudal seat near

Deir al-Qamar Deir al-Qamar () is a city south-east of Beirut in south-central Lebanon. It is located five kilometres outside of Beit ed-Dine in the Chouf District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate at 800 m of average altitude. History Crusader period The ol ...

, and

Bhamdoun Bhamdoun (), is a town in Lebanon from Beirut on the main road that leads to Damascus and in the suburbs of the main tourist city of Aley, lying at an altitude of above the Lamartine valley. Geography Two separate villages compose the town, ' ...

, and the

coastal enclave south of

, which was added to the canton in March 1984. At

west Beirut West Beirut is a term referring to the western part of Beirut, the Lebanese capital, which became popular during the Lebanese Civil War that lasted from 1975 to 1990, when the city was divided along sectarian lines into two main areas: West Beiru ...

, the PLA had since 1976-77 a presence at the Ain el-Mreisseh seafront quarters of Dar el-Mreisseh district and the Corniche el-Mazraa of the Msaytbeh district, and controlled since May 1985 the Druze-populated Karakol el-Druze quarter, parts of the Hamra district and a large portion of Rue Jabal el-Arab in the Watta el-Msaytbeh quarter, the latter a small Druze street that housed the PSP's main political offices in the capital city. From the Israeli withdrawal from the Chouf in 1983 to the end of the civil war in 1990, the PSP ran a highly effective and well-organized civil service, the "Civilian Administration of the Mountain" (CAM or CAOM), in the areas under its control (the Chouf and

s). The CAM was set up on 1 October 1983 at Beiteddine, headed by an eight-man supreme council that included a central committee and a general congress. Its own 23 bureaus staffed by 3,000 public employees provided everything from education to medical care and also employed 2,000 seasonal workers in agricultural and industrial projects in the Chouf. To finance the administration, a Druze-run Holding, the COGECO group, was made responsible for running illegal activities at the clandestine ports of

Khalde Khaldah () is a coastal town located south of Beirut, Lebanon. It is famous as a tourist destination in the summer, especially for its various beach resorts. The southern portion of Beirut–Rafic Hariri International Airport is located in Khald ...

and

in the Iqlim al-Kharrub coastal enclave, which included the importation of fuel from

Iran Iran, officially the Islamic Republic of Iran (IRI) and also known as Persia, is a country in West Asia. It borders Iraq to the west, Turkey, Azerbaijan, and Armenia to the northwest, the Caspian Sea to the north, Turkmenistan to the nort ...

drug-trafficking The illegal drug trade, drug trafficking, or narcotrafficking is a global black market dedicated to the cultivation, manufacture, distribution and sale of prohibited drugs. Most jurisdictions prohibit trade, except under license, of many types ...

and

gambling Gambling (also known as betting or gaming) is the wagering of something of Value (economics), value ("the stakes") on a Event (probability theory), random event with the intent of winning something else of value, where instances of strategy (ga ...

by a network of PSP-run Hotels and illegal Casinos. Additional revenues were generated by leaving tolls on the transit trade of agricultural products and other goods at a number of in-land PLA road checkpoints, whilst the expatriated Druze community in the

United States The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...

provided financial support. Beiteddine was also the home of the PSP/PLA media services, responsible for editing its official newspaper, "The News" (

: ''Al-Anba'a'') and operated since February 1984 their own radio station, the "

Voice of the Mountain The Voice of the Mountain (, ''Sawt al-Jabal'') was a radio station operated by the Progressive Socialist Party during the Lebanese Civil War. History and profile Although its beginning was in 1983, the broadcasting of the ''Voice of the Mountain' ...

" (

: ''Iza'at Sawt al-Djabal'') or "La Voix de la Montagne" in

Controversy

Historically, the

Druze in Lebanon The Lebanese Druze () are an ethnoreligious group constituting about 5.2 percentChristian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

and

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

, and they have a reputation of being savage fighters known for their tenacious battle spirit. Their

esprit de corps Morale ( , ) is the capacity of a group's members to maintain belief in an institution or goal, particularly in the face of opposition or hardship. Morale is often referenced by authority figures as a generic value judgment of the willpower ...

and brutal methods often convinced their opponents to flee, whilst those who decided to stay and fight never lived to tell the tale. However, the Lebanese Druze have also been amiable to whoever controls the Chouf region at any given time, and they were pragmatic with their dealings with foreign powers such as the Israelis, Americans and Syrians. Long-standing enemies since the 1860s, the Druze have always been at odds with the

Maronites Maronites (; ) are a Syriac Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant (particularly Lebanon) whose members belong to the Maronite Church. The largest concentration has traditionally resided near Mount ...

, and acts of barbarism on both sides have bedevilled their ability to co-exist for centuries past. On 16 March 1977, the PSP leader Kamal Jumblatt was ambushed and killed in his car near Baakline in the Chouf by unidentified gunmen (allegedly, fighters from the pro-Syrian faction of the

Syrian Social Nationalist Party The Syrian Social Nationalist Party (SSNP; ) is a Syrian nationalist party operating in Syria, Lebanon, and Jordan. It advocates the establishment of a Greater Syrian nation state spanning the Fertile Crescent, including present-day Syria, Leb ...

or SSNP, acting in collusion with the Syrian military commander of the

region, Colonel Ibrahim Houeijy);Rabinovich, ''The War for Lebanon'' (1989), p. 77. believing that the perpetrators were members of the predominately Christian

Phalangist The Kataeb Party (), officially the Kataeb Party – Lebanese Social Democratic Party ( '), also known as the Phalangist Party, is a right-wing Christian political party in Lebanon founded by Pierre Gemayel in 1936. The party and its parami ...

Kataeb Regulatory Forces The Kataeb Regulatory Forces – KRF () or Forces Régulatoires des Kataeb (FRK) in French language, French, were the military wing of the right-wing Christianity in Lebanon, Lebanese Christian Kataeb Party, otherwise known as the 'Phalange', fr ...

(KRF) or

Tigers Militia The Tigers militia (Arabic: نمور الأحرار, transliterated: ''Numūr al-Aḥrar''; French: ''PNL "Lionceaux"''), also known as Tigers of the Liberals (Arabic: نمور الليبراليين‎, transliterated: ''Numūr al-Lībrāliyy� ...

s, PLF militiamen extracted swift retribution on the local Maronite population living in the intermixed towns and villages around Baakline. Despite the hasty dispatch on 17 March of 4,000

troops from the

Arab Deterrent Force The Arab Deterrent Force (ADF; ) was an international peacekeeping force created by the Arab League in the 1976 Arab League summit (Riyadh), extraordinary Riyadh Summit on 17–18 October 1976, attended only by heads of state from Egypt, Kuwait, ...

(ADF) to keep the peace in the Chouf, it is estimated that about 177–250 Maronite villagers were killed in reprisal actions (known as the

Chouf massacres Mainly between March 16, 1977 and March 30, 1977 (with other attacks occurring in mid-August) a series of massacres on Christian civilians took place in the Chouf region during the Lebanese Civil War. The massacres were mostly committed by Druze ...

) at the towns of

and

Barouk Barouk () is a village in the Chouf District of Mount Lebanon Governorate in Lebanon. Barouk is located 52 kilometers southeast of Beirut. Its average elevation is 1000 to 1200 meters above sea level and its total land area consists of 2,762 hecta ...

, and at the villages of

Mazraat el-Chouf Mazraat el-Chouf (; also spelled Mazra'at al-Shuf) is a municipality in the Chouf District of the Mount Lebanon Governorate in Lebanon. It is located 50 kilometers southeast of Beirut. Its average elevation is 950 meters above sea level and its tot ...

Maaser el-Chouf A tithe (; from Old English: ''teogoþa'' "tenth") is a one-tenth part of something, paid as a contribution to a religious organization or compulsory tax to government. Modern tithes are normally voluntary and paid in cash, cheques or via onli ...

, Botmeh,

Kfar Nabrakh Kfar Nabrakh ( ''Kfar Nabrakh'') is a municipality in the Chouf District of Mount Lebanon Governorate, Lebanon. It is located 50 kilometers southeast of Beirut. Kfarnabrakh total land area consists of 941 hectares. Its average elevation is 1,010 me ...

, Fraydis,

Machghara Machghara (), also spelled Mashghara, is a town in the Beqaa Valley of Lebanon, situated in the Western Beqaa District and south of the Beqaa Governorate. It lies just to the northwest of Sohmor and southwest of Lake Qaraoun, south of Aitanit and ...

, Baadaran, Shurit,

Ain Zhalta Ain Zhalta (Arabic: عين زحلتا) is a village in the Chouf District of Mount Lebanon Governorate in southwestern Lebanon. The majority of its inhabitants are Druze. The Battle of Ain Zhalta was held here in June 1982 with Syria. Masser A ...

and

Brih Brih, Breeh () is a village in the Chouf District in Mount Lebanon region, Lebanon. Brih is located away from Beirut, the capital of Lebanon. It sits at an altitude of above sea level and has an overall surface area of . The word Brih is of Sy ...

(

St George's Church attack The St George's Church attack, also known as the massacre of the Saint George Church, was a massacre of Maronite Christian worshipers in the Lebanese village of Brih in the Chouf mountains which took place on August 21, 1977, during the Lebane ...

). During the

, the predominantly Maronite

militia occupied the Chouf District and tried to impose its authority by force, allegedly

killing Killing, Killings, or The Killing may refer to: Types of killing *-cide, a suffix that refers to types of killing (see List of types of killing), such as: ** Homicide, one human killing another *** Murder, unlawful killing of another human without ...

some 145 Druze civilians at Kfar Matta in September 1983 (although other sources allege that the death toll mounted to 200 people), followed by other killings at Sayed Abdullah, Salimeh and Ras el-Matn in the

. The Lebanese Forces command later accused the Druze PLA of committing "unprecedented massacres" in the Chouf – in order to deny support, cover or a visible community for the LF to protect, the Druze PSP/PLA leadership implemented a territorial cleansing policy to drain the Christian population from the region, during which Walid Jumblatt's militia forces overran between 31 August and 13 September 1983 sixty-two Maronite villages (including Bmarian, Bireh, Ras el-Matn, Maaser Beit ed-Dine, Chartoun, Ain el-Hour, Bourjayne, Fawara, and Maaser el-Chouf), slaughtered 1,500 people and drove another 50,000 out of their homes in the mountainous areas east and west of Beirut. In retaliation, some 127 Druze civilians were killed by LF militiamen between 5–7 September at the Shahhar region, Kfarmatta, Al-Bennay,

Ain Ksour Ain Ksour (), is a village in Aley District, Lebanon. Municipal elections are held every six years. History In 1838, Eli Smith noted the place, called Ain Kesur'', located in ''El-Ghurb el-Fokany''; Upper el-Ghurb.Robinson and Smith, 1841, vo ...

, and

Aabey Aabey, also spelled Abey (), is a village located in Mount Lebanon, in Aley District of Mount Lebanon Governorate. It is located from Beirut and has an altitude of 800 m (2,600 feet). It is bordered by Kfarmatta (South), Al Bennay (East ...

, where the LF also desecrated the tomb of a prominent Druze religious man. It is estimated that these 'tit-for-tat' killings ultimately led to the displacement of 20,000 Druze and 163,670 Christian villagers from the Chouf. Like other Lebanese militias, the PLA was also involved in the assassination and kidnapping of political adversaries. In late 1976, Druze "Commandos" from the then Popular Liberation Forces (PLF) made an unsuccessful attempt on the life of Ahmad Safwan, the lider of the rival

Shia Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood ...

Knights of Ali The 'Knights of Ali' (Arabic: فرسان علي , ''Fursan Ali''), also known as the 'Youth of Ali', were a small Shia political movement and militia that used to operate at West Beirut, being a member of the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) dur ...

militia in West Beirut, which was enough to convince him to disband his own 400-strong militia shortly afterwards. In one occasion, on 23 September 1984 PLA fighters attempted to seize two Lebanese Army soldiers posted on sentry duty outside the Barbir Hospital in the Ouza'i district of West Beirut, though the latter managed to escape on foot towards the Army-manned Ojjeh checkpoint situated nearby at the Green Line, despite being pursued by their captors in a civilian car. Later on 8 September 1988, the deputy for

Jezzine Jezzine ( ''Jizzīn'') is a municipality in Lebanon, located from Sidon and south of Beirut. It is the capital of Jezzine District. Surrounded by mountain peaks, pine forests (like the Bkassine Pine Forest), and at an average altitude of 95 ...

in the

Lebanese Parliament The Lebanese Parliament (, ) is the unicameral national parliament of the Lebanon, Republic of Lebanon. There are 128 members elected to a four-year term in Electoral district, multi-member constituencies, apportioned among Lebanon's divers ...

, Dr Farid Serhal, was seized by PLA militiamen at a checkpoint also in the Ouza'i district of West Beirut and driven off to the

Le Bristol Hotel Beirut The Le Bristol Hotel Beirut was a famous 5-star luxury hotel located in the Verdun neighborhood of Beirut, Lebanon. It opened in 1951 and was famous for both its architecture and guests it hosted. The hotel closed permanently in 2020. History ...

Rue Madame Curie Rue Madame Curie is a street in Beirut, Lebanon. The street, which is named in honor of Marie Curie, the Polish–French physicist–chemist, begins at Rue Badr Demachkieh in the Raouché neighborhood of the Ras Beirut district, running west–ea ...

Ras Beirut Ras Beirut () is an upscale residential neighborhood in Beirut, Lebanon. It has a mixed population of Christians, Muslims and Druze, and is associated with nonsectarian relations between members of thee groupings. Ras Beirut is home to some of ...

, where he was temporarily held hostage.

The PLA in the Lebanese Civil War

The early phase 1975–1982

When the

began in April 1975, as a member of the LNM the Druze PSP was an active founder of its military wing, the Joint Forces (LNM-JF), and during the 1975–77 phase of the Lebanese Civil War, they were heavily committed in several battles. At the

in October 1975, the Popular Commandos Forces led by Ramez Assaf engaged Christian

(KRF) and

fighters, and later participated in the 'Spring Offensive' held against

East Beirut The East Beirut canton, also known as Kfarshima - Madfoun or Marounistan, was a Christian militia controlled territory that existed in Lebanon from 1976 until its gradual erosion following the Taif Agreement and the end of the country's civil war. ...

and

, battling the

Lebanese Front The Lebanese Front was a coalition of mainly right-wing Lebanese Nationalist parties formed in 1976 by majority Christian groups during the Lebanese Civil War. It was intended to act as a reaction force to the Lebanese National Movement (LNM) ...

militias at the

in March–April 1976. At the former location, the PSP Popular Commandos Forces allied with the

(LAA) battled

Internal Security Forces The Internal Security Forces (; ; abbreviated ISF) are the national police and gendarmerie of Lebanon. Modern police were established in Lebanon in 1861, with the creation of a gendarmerie force. In April 2005, Ashraf Rifi became head of the I ...

(ISF) and

Army of Free Lebanon The Army of Free Lebanon – AFL (), also known variously as the Colonel Barakat's Army () or Armée du Liban Libre (ALL) and Armée du Colonel Barakat in French, was a predominantly Christian splinter faction of the Lebanese Army that came to p ...

's (AFL) units during an unsuccessful attempt to raid the AFL Headquarters at the Shukri Ghanem Barracks complex in the Fayadieh district. Kamal Jumblatt's opposition to the Syrian military intervention of June 1976 in support of the official Lebanese Government and his adversaries of the Christian

militias, resulted in the PSP/PLF fighting

troops at the

Battle of Bhamdoun A battle is an occurrence of combat in warfare between opposing military units of any number or size. A war usually consists of multiple battles. In general, a battle is a military engagement that is well defined in duration, area, and force co ...

in the

. Between 13 and 17 October 1976, the Druze PSP's Popular Liberation Forces and their allies of the

Sunni Sunni Islam is the largest branch of Islam and the largest religious denomination in the world. It holds that Muhammad did not appoint any successor and that his closest companion Abu Bakr () rightfully succeeded him as the caliph of the Mu ...

Al-Mourabitoun The Independent Nasserite Movement – INM () or simply Al-Murabitoun ( lit. ''The Steadfast''), also termed variously Independent Nasserite Organization (INO) or Movement of Independent Nasserists (MIN), is a Nasserist political party in Leban ...

militia, the LAA and the PLO inflicted heavy losses on the Syrian 3rd Armoured Division when they tried to enter

by force.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), p. 6. In 1977, PLF militia forces were also involved in the fierce fighting that engulfed the northern port city of

Tripoli Tripoli or Tripolis (from , meaning "three cities") may refer to: Places Greece *Tripolis (region of Arcadia), a district in ancient Arcadia, Greece * Tripolis (Larisaia), an ancient Greek city in the Pelasgiotis district, Thessaly, near Larissa ...

, clashing once again with the Christian

militias and the

The Mountain War 1983–84

During the June 1982 Israeli invasion of Lebanon the PSP/PLA remained neutral, with Walid Jumblatt refusing to allow PLO units to operate within Druze territory and the PSP militia forces did not fought against the

Israel Defense Forces The Israel Defense Forces (IDF; , ), alternatively referred to by the Hebrew-language acronym (), is the national military of the State of Israel. It consists of three service branches: the Israeli Ground Forces, the Israeli Air Force, and ...

(IDF), even though they supported their arch-enemies the

Maronite Maronites (; ) are a Syriac Christianity, Syriac Christian ethnoreligious group native to the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant (particularly Lebanon) whose members belong to the Maronite Church. The largest concentration has traditionally re ...

Kataeb Party The Kataeb Party (), officially the Kataeb Party – Lebanese Social Democratic Party ( '), also known as the Phalangist Party, is a right-wing Christian political party in Lebanon founded by Pierre Gemayel in 1936. The party and its parami ...

and its military arm, the

(LF) militia.Katz, Russel and Volstad, ''Armies in Lebanon 1982–84'' (1985), p. 33. However, when President

Amine Gemayel Amine Pierre Gemayel (, ; born 22 January 1942) is a Lebanese politician who served as the eighth president of Lebanon from 1982 to 1988. Gemayel was born in Bikfaya to Pierre Gemayel, the founder of the Christianity in Lebanon, Christian Kat ...

refused to grant the Druze community the expected political representation, Walid Jumblatt formed in response in July 1983 a Palestinian- and Syrian-backed military coalition, the Lebanese National Salvation Front (LNSF), that rallied several Lebanese Muslim and Christian parties and militias opposed to the U.S.-sponsored

May 17 Agreement The May 17 Agreement of 1983 was an agreement signed between Lebanon and Israel during the Lebanese Civil War on May 17, 1983, after Israel invaded Lebanon to end cross border attacks and besieged Beirut in 1982. It called for the withdrawal of ...

with

. Led by Jumblatt's PSP/PLA, the alliance gathered its rivals of the Druze

Yazbaki The Yazbaki clan is a prominent Druze family in Lebanon and, alongside the Jumblatt clan, has been one of the two dominant Druze clans since the mid-18th century. Both clans have historically vied for significant influence within the Lebanese poli ...

clan, the

(SSNP), the

and the

Lebanese Communist Party The Lebanese Communist Party (LCP; , transliterated: ) is a communist party in Lebanon. It was founded in 1943 as a division of the Syrian–Lebanese Communist Party into the Syrian Communist Party and the Lebanese Communist Party, but the divi ...

(LCP)/

Popular Guard The Popular Guard or Popular Guards – PG ( , ''Al-Harās al-Sha‘abī'') was the military wing of the Lebanese Communist Party (LCP), which fought in the Lebanese Civil War#First phase (1975–1977), 1975–1977 phase of the Lebanese Civil W ...

s, which fought the LF, the

Lebanese Armed Forces The Lebanese Armed Forces (LAF; ), also known as the Lebanese Army (), is the national military of the Republic of Lebanon. It consists of three branches, the ground forces, the air force, and the navy. The motto of the Lebanese Armed Forces is ...

(LAF) and the U.S. Marines contingent of the

Multinational Force A multinational force is a multinational operation which may be defensive, offensive, or for peacekeeping purposes. In multinational operations, many countries form an alliance to carry them out. Multinational forces include: * Supreme Headquar ...

(MNF II) in the Chouf and Aley Districts and at West Beirut between September 1983 and February 1984. During that conflict, the PSP/PLA clashed with the Lebanese Army's 4th infantry Brigade units reinforced by the 101st Ranger Battalion from the 10th Airmobile BrigadeHokayem, ''L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975-1985)'' (2012), p. 88. fighting desperately to retain their positions at

, Kfar Matta,

, and Al-Bennay in the

. Druze radio operators from the PSP/PLA Signal Corps managed to intercept, alter, and retransmit Lebanese Army radio communications, which allowed them to impersonate the LAF command in east Beirut by ordering 4th Infantry Brigade units to retreat to safer positions. Simultaneously, they ordered Lebanese Army's artillery units positioned at east Beirut to shell their own troops' positions in the western Chouf, which wreaked havoc among 4th Infantry Brigade units and forced them to fall back in disorder towards the coast while being subjected to friendly fire. On 22 March 1984, Druze PLA militiamen backed by the

Amal militia The Lebanese Resistance Regiments (, or AMAL), also designated Lebanese Resistance Battalions, Lebanese Resistance Detachments, Lebanese Resistance Legions and Battalions de la Resistance Libanaise (BRL), but simply known by its Arabic acronym ...

drove their erstwhile allies of the

militia and other smaller factions from their positions along the Green Line in the central districts of Beirut, ostensibly to prevent any violations of the ceasefire that came into effect after the decisive defeat of the Lebanese Army and the Lebanese Forces during the

February 6 Intifada The February 6 Intifada or February 6 uprising in West Beirut took place on 6 February 1984 during the Lebanese Civil War.Young, Michael. 7 February 2004.Remembering the uprising of Feb. 6, 1984." ''The Daily Star''. It was a battle where the Shi ...

. Later on 24 July, the PLA battled again the

militia at West Beirut, until the fighting was curbed by the intervention of the predominately

Sixth Brigade.

The War of the Camps 1985–87

When the Coastal War broke out in March–April 1985, the PSP/PLA joined in a Syrian-backed coalition with the

Popular Nasserist Organization The Popular Nasserist Organization – PNO () is a Sidon-based Nasserist party originally formed in 1973 by Maarouf Saad, a Sunni Muslim pan-Arab politician and member of Parliament (MP) later killed by the Lebanese Army during a February 1975 ...

(PNO), the

and the

Shi'ite Shia Islam is the second-largest branch of Islam. It holds that Muhammad designated Ali ibn Abi Talib () as both his political successor (caliph) and as the spiritual leader of the Muslim community (imam). However, his right is understood to ...

Amal Movement The Amal Movement () is a Lebanese political party and militia affiliated mainly with the Shia community of Lebanon. It was founded by Musa al-Sadr and Hussein el-Husseini in 1974 as the "Movement of the Deprived." The party has been led by ...

, which defeated the Christian

(LF) attempts to establish bridgeheads at

Damour Damour () is a Lebanese Christian town that is south of Beirut. It is located in the Chouf District in the Mount Lebanon Governorate. Geography The city is located in one of the few flat areas of the Lebanese coast. It is built to the nor ...

and

Sidon Sidon ( ) or better known as Saida ( ; ) is the third-largest city in Lebanon. It is located on the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast in the South Governorate, Lebanon, South Governorate, of which it is the capital. Tyre, Lebanon, Tyre, t ...

. This alliance was short-lived, however, and as soon this battle ended, they joined in May another powerful coalition that gathered Amal and LCP/

s militia forces backed by

Syria Syria, officially the Syrian Arab Republic, is a country in West Asia located in the Eastern Mediterranean and the Levant. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the west, Turkey to Syria–Turkey border, the north, Iraq to Iraq–Syria border, t ...

,Joe Stork,
The War of the Camps, The War of the Hostages
in ''MERIP Reports'', No. 133. (June 1985), pp. 3–7, 22. the

, and anti- Arafat dissident Palestinian guerrilla factions gathered in the

Palestinian National Salvation Front The Palestinian National Salvation Front () (PNSF) was a coalition of Palestinian factions. The creation of the Palestinian National Salvation Front was announced on March 25, 1985, by Khalid al-Fahum. The front consisted of the PFLP, PFLP-GC, ...

(PNSF) pitted against an alliance of pro-Arafat

Palestinian refugee camps Palestinian refugee camps were first established to accommodate Palestinians who were displaced by the 1948 Palestinian expulsion and flight during the 1948 Palestine war. Camps were established by the United Nations Relief and Works Agency ( ...

' PLO militias, the

, the Communist Action Organization in Lebanon (OCAL), the Sixth of February Movement and the Kurdish Democratic Party – Lebanon (KDP-L). Although the PSP/PLA had stormed and seized the Al-Mourabitoun's radio and television studios in the Mahallat Abu Shaker Party headquarters' offices located near the

Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque The Gamal Abdel Nasser Mosque () is a mosque in Cairo, Egypt. The mosque is known for containing the mausoleum of Gamal Abdel Nasser. Overview It is located in El Qobbah district and as such, it is often referred to as "El-Qobbah Mosque". It ...

in the Corniche El-Mazraa district earlier in March, and helped Amal in defeating the Al-Mourabitoun after a week of heavy fighting, they were reluctant to suppress altogether the PLO and KDP-L militias defending the refugee camps, preferring instead to stay out of the fight and remain militarily neutral in the subsequent conflict. Despite the PLA's "neutrality" posture, however, they did allowed the pro-Arafat Palestinian fighters to station their artillery on Druze-controlled areas in the Chouf. Between July and November 1985, the PLA battled Amal for the control of some key positions in West Beirut previously held by the

(MNF II), until a cease-fire agreement mediated by the Syrian military intelligence chief in Lebanon, Major general

Ghazi Kanaan Ghazi Kanaan (; 1942 – 12 October 2005; also known by his nickname Abu Yo'roub) was a Syrian Officer (armed forces), military officer and intelligence chief who served as Syria's interior minister from 2004 to 2005. He was also the long-tim ...

, was signed in late November. The terms of the agreement clearly favored Amal, which forced Walid Jumblatt on 24 November to publicly "reconsider" the military presence of his own PSP/PLA militia in the western sector of the Lebanese Capital. In January 1987, PLA bodyguards provided protection to the

Church of England The Church of England (C of E) is the State religion#State churches, established List of Christian denominations, Christian church in England and the Crown Dependencies. It is the mother church of the Anglicanism, Anglican Christian tradition, ...

's special envoy

Terry Waite Sir Terence Hardy Waite (born 31 May 1939) is a British human rights activist and author. Waite was the Assistant for Anglican Communion Affairs for the then Archbishop of Canterbury, Robert Runcie, in the 1980s. As an envoy for the Church of ...

during his trip to West Beirut to negotiate the release of several British hostages then held by the

Islamic Jihad Organization The Islamic Jihad Organization (IJO; (OJI); ) was a Lebanese Shia Muslims, Lebanese Shia militia known for its activities in the 1980s during the Lebanese Civil War. The organization, advocating for the withdrawal of all Americans from Leba ...

(IJO), though they were unable to prevent him of being tricked and abducted in turn by the IJO on 20 January. Besides personal protection, the PLA also provided security to the Commodore Hotel at Rue Baalbek on the Hamra district of West Beirut – which housed many foreign correspondents on assignment in the war-torn Lebanese Capital and served as an international news media center – and to the Soviet Embassy at Rue Mar Elias in the Ain el-Tineh quarter in

, also in West Beirut. The following month, the PLA and Amal again turned against each other in what became known as the "War of the Flag". The conflict was started when a PLA fighter walked to the Channel 7 TV station (

: ''Télé Liban – Canal 7'') building in the Tallet el-Khayat sector at Msaytbeh and replaced the Lebanese national flag hoisted there by the Druze five-coloured flag, which was interpreted by Amal militiamen as a deliberate act of provocation. A new round of brutal fighting soon spread throughout western Beirut, and although Amal forces initially managed to restore the Lebanese national flag on the Channel 7 building, they were subsequently overpowered by an alliance of PLA, LCP/

and SSNP militias, and driven out of large portions of West Beirut. On 21-22 February, the week of fighting was ended by the arrival in West Beirut of 7,000 Syrian Commando troops under the command of Maj. Gen. Kanaan, assisted by Lebanese

(ISF) gendarmes, who immediately closed over fifty militia "offices" and banned the carrying of weapons in public, detaining in the process many young men with beards suspected of being militiamen. That same year, the PLA fought again the

in the

, after the predominately Christian Maronite Fifth brigade had been deployed at the strategic town of

Souk El Gharb Souk El Gharb (), (also spelled Suk, Sug al, ul, Suq), is a town located in the Aley District, Mount Lebanon Governorate, in Lebanon and its name translates to "Western Market". Before the Lebanese Civil War (1975–1990), this mountain town sur ...

to prevent Druze artillerymen from shelling the Lebanese Capital.

The later years 1988–1990

During the 1989–1990 Liberation War, the PLA fought alongside pro-Syrian

Lebanese Forces – Executive Command The Lebanese Forces – Executive Command or LFEC (Arabic: القوات اللبنانية - القيادة التنفيذية , ''Al-Quwwat al-Lubnaniyya – Al-Qiyada Al-Tanfeethiyya''), was a splinter group from the Lebanese Forces (militia), ...

(LFEC) and

(PNSF) militias backed by the

against

General A general officer is an Officer (armed forces), officer of high rank in the army, armies, and in some nations' air force, air and space forces, marines or naval infantry. In some usages, the term "general officer" refers to a rank above colone ...

Michel Aoun's Lebanese Army faction at the second battle of

on 13 August 1989. The ground offensive was preceded by a massive and sustained Syrian artillery barrage on the positions held by Aounist troops, who repulsed the assault by inflicting some 20-30 casualties on the PSP/PLA attackers. Later on 13 October 1990, the PLA participated in the final offensive that brought a decisive end to the

, assisting

(SSNP), LFEC militiamen and Syrian troops in the capture of Gen. Aoun's HQ at the

Presidential Palace A presidential palace is the official residence of the president in some countries. Some presidential palaces were once the official residences to monarchs in former monarchies that were preserved during those states' transition into republics. ...

Baabda Baabda () is the capital city of Baabda District and Mount Lebanon Governorate, western Lebanon. Baabda was also the capital city of the autonomous Ottoman Mount Lebanon that existed from 1861 to 1918. Baabda is home to the Italian, Japanese, ...

Disbandment

Upon the end of the war in October 1990, PSP/PLA militia forces operating in Beirut and the Chouf were ordered by the Lebanese Government on 28 March 1991 to disband and surrender their heavy weaponry by 30 April as stipulated by the

Taif Agreement The 1989 Taif Agreement (, ), officially known as the ('')'', was reached to provide "the basis for the ending of the civil war and the return to political normalcy in Lebanon". Negotiated in Taif, Saudi Arabia, it was designed to end the 15 y ...

to the

and the

(LAF).Rabah, ''Conflict on Mount Lebanon: The Druze, the Maronites and Collective Memory'' (2020), p. 291. Accordingly, the PLA's military hardware was collected and delivered to two central parks under Lebanese Army and Syrian supervision, one being located at the

barracks where all the artillery pieces were stored, and the other at the

barracks where the remaining equipment that included tanks, APCs, howitzers, anti-tank guns, tank transporters and their respective trailers, cargo trucks, and truck-mounted MBRLs was stored in turn. A total of 3,300 former PLA militiamen, including 50 officers, requested integration into the structure of the LAF, but only 1,300 of these applicants were actually integrated. Some 800 ex-PLA fighters joined the re-formed

during the first stage, 160 of whom were attached to the

(ISF) or the

Lebanese Customs Administration Lebanese Customs (Arabic: الجمارك اللبنانية ''Al-Jamarek Al-Lubnaniyah'') ( French: Douanes Libanaises) is the government authority in Lebanon responsible for collecting customs duties and controlling the flow of goods in and out ...

. At a later stage, probably towards the beginning of 1992, an additional 500 Druze militiamen were integrated into the LAF and the ISF, with the process being completed by mid-1994. Despite the order to disarm, some PSP/PLA guerrilla cells from the South Sector continued to operate in

southern Lebanon Southern Lebanon () is the area of Lebanon comprising the South Governorate and the Nabatiye Governorate. The two entities were divided from the same province in the early 1990s. The Rashaya and Western Beqaa districts, the southernmost distr ...

against the

(IDF) and their

South Lebanon Army The South Lebanon Army or South Lebanese Army (SLA; , ), also known as the Lahad Army () or as the De Facto Forces (DFF), was a Christianity in Lebanon, Christian-dominated militia in Lebanon. It was founded by Lebanese military officer Saad H ...

(SLA) proxies in the "

Security Belt The Security Belt Forces (Arabic: قوات الحزام الأمني) is a paramilitary force based in Southern Yemen that forms the elite military wing of the Southern Transitional Council. The force operates in the governorates of Aden, Lahij a ...

" until the final Israeli pull-out in May 2000. The PLA is no longer active.

Weapons and equipment

Besides

Palestinian Palestinians () are an Arab ethnonational group native to the Levantine region of Palestine. *: "Palestine was part of the first wave of conquest following Muhammad's death in 632 CE; Jerusalem fell to the Caliph Umar in 638. The indigenous p ...

and

Syrian Syrians () are the majority inhabitants of Syria, indigenous to the Levant, most of whom have Arabic, especially its Levantine and Mesopotamian dialects, as a mother tongue. The cultural and linguistic heritage of the Syrian people is a blend ...

backing, the collapse of the

(LAF) and

(ISF) in January 1976 allowed the PSP/PLA to seize some weapons and vehicles from their barracks and police stations,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 117. though they received further military assistance from

Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...

Iraq Iraq, officially the Republic of Iraq, is a country in West Asia. It is bordered by Saudi Arabia to Iraq–Saudi Arabia border, the south, Turkey to Iraq–Turkey border, the north, Iran to Iran–Iraq border, the east, the Persian Gulf and ...

Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...

Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia ( ; Czech language, Czech and , ''Česko-Slovensko'') was a landlocked country in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland beca ...

East Germany East Germany, officially known as the German Democratic Republic (GDR), was a country in Central Europe from Foundation of East Germany, its formation on 7 October 1949 until German reunification, its reunification with West Germany (FRG) on ...

, and the

USSR The Union of Soviet Socialist Republics. (USSR), commonly known as the Soviet Union, was a List of former transcontinental countries#Since 1700, transcontinental country that spanned much of Eurasia from 1922 until Dissolution of the Soviet ...

. Additional weaponry, vehicles and other, non-lethal military equipments were procured in the international

black market A black market is a Secrecy, clandestine Market (economics), market or series of transactions that has some aspect of illegality, or is not compliant with an institutional set of rules. If the rule defines the set of goods and services who ...

Small-arms

PLA infantry units were provided with a variety of small arms, comprising

Mauser Mauser, originally the Königlich Württembergische Gewehrfabrik, was a German arms manufacturer. Their line of bolt-action rifles and semi-automatic pistols was produced beginning in the 1870s for the German armed forces. In the late 19th and ...

Gewehr 98 The Gewehr 98 (abbreviated ''G98'', Gew 98, or ''M98'') is a bolt-action rifle made by Mauser for the German Empire as its service rifle from 1898 to 1935. The Gewehr 98 action, using a 5-round stripper clip loaded with the 7.92×57mm Mauser ...

and

Karabiner 98k The Karabiner 98 kurz (; ), often abbreviated Karabiner 98k, Kar98k or K98k and also sometimes incorrectly referred to as a K98 (a K98 is a Polish carbine and copy of the Kar98a), is a bolt-action rifle chambered for the 7.92×57mm Mauser cartri ...

, Lee–Enfield SMLE Mk III,

Pattern 1914 Enfield The Rifle, .303 Pattern 1914 (or P14) was a British service rifle of the First World War period, principally manufactured under contract by companies in the United States. It was a bolt-action weapon with an integral 5-round magazine. It served ...

, Berthier 1907/15 – M16 Lebel and

MAS-36 The MAS Modèle 36 (also known as the ''Fusil à répétition 7 mm 5 M. 36'') is a military bolt-action rifle. First adopted in 1936 by France and intended to replace the Berthier and Lebel series of service rifles, it saw service long past the ...

bolt-action Bolt action is a type of manual Action (firearms), firearm action that is operated by ''directly'' manipulating the bolt (firearms), turn-bolt via a cocking handle, bolt handle, most commonly placed on the right-hand side of the firearm (a ...

rifles,

MAS-49 The MAS-49 is a French semi-automatic rifle that replaced various bolt-action rifles as the French service rifle that was produced from 1949. It was designed and manufactured by the government-owned MAS arms factory.Huon, Jean; ''Proud Promise— ...

M1 Garand The M1 Garand or M1 rifleOfficially designated as U.S. rifle, caliber .30, M1, later simply called Rifle, Caliber .30, M1, also called US Rifle, Cal. .30, M1 is a semi-automatic rifle that was the service rifle of the United States Army, U.S. ...

(or its Italian-produced copy, the Beretta Model 1952) and

SKS The SKS () is a semi-automatic rifle designed by Soviet small arms designer Sergei Gavrilovich Simonov in the 1940s. The SKS was first produced in the Soviet Union but was later widely exported and manufactured by various nations. Its disting ...

semi-automatic rifle A semi-automatic rifle is a type of rifle that fires a single round each time the Trigger (firearms), trigger is pulled while automatically loading the next Cartridge (firearms), cartridge. These rifles were developed Pre-World War II, and w ...

AMD-65 The AMD-65 ( Hungarian: ''Automata Módosított Deszantfegyver 1965''; Automatic Modified Paratrooper Weapon 1965) is a Hungarian-manufactured licensed variant of the selective fire AKM rifle. Usage The Hungarian Defence Forces issued the ...

assault carbines,

Heckler & Koch G3 The Heckler & Koch G3 () is a selective fire, select-fire battle rifle chambered in 7.62×51mm NATO developed in the 1950s by the German firearms manufacturer Heckler & Koch, in collaboration with the Spanish state-owned firearms manufacturer CE ...

FN FAL The FAL (, English: Light Automatic Rifle) is a battle rifle designed in Belgium by Dieudonné Saive and manufactured by FN Herstal and others since 1953. During the Cold War the FAL was adopted by many countries of the NATO, North Atlantic Trea ...

M16A1 The M16 (officially Rifle, Caliber 5.56 mm, M16) is a family of assault rifles adapted from the ArmaLite AR-15 rifle for the United States Armed Forces, United States military. The original M16 was a 5.56×45mm NATO, 5.56×45mm automatic ...

and AKM assault rifles (other variants included the

Zastava M70 The Zastava M70 ( sr-Cyrl, Застава М70) is a 7.62×39mm assault rifle developed in the Socialist Federal Republic of Yugoslavia by Zastava Arms. The M70 was an unlicensed derivative of the Soviet Union, Soviet AK-47 (specifically the Type ...

,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 19. Chinese

Type 56 The Type 56 (; literally; "Assault Rifle, Model of 1956") is a Chinese 7.62×39mm assault rifle. It is a licensed derivative of the Soviet-designed AK-47 (specifically the Type 3 variant). The Type 56 rifle was adopted by the People's Liber ...

,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 23. Romanian

Pistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965 The Pistol Mitralieră model 1963/1965 (abbreviated PM md. 63 or simply md. 63) is a Romanian 7.62×39mm assault rifle. Developed in the late 1950s, the PM md. 63 was a derivative of the Soviet Union, Soviet AKM produced under license. It was the ...

,Katz and Volstad, ''Arab Armies of the Middle East Wars 2'' (1988), p. 46, Plate G5. Bulgarian AKK/AKKS and former East German MPi-KMS-72 assault rifles). Submachine guns and shotguns, such as the

PPSh-41 The PPSh-41 () is a selective-fire, open-bolt, blowback submachine gun that fires the 7.62×25mm Tokarev round. It was designed by Georgy Shpagin of the Soviet Union to be a cheaper and simplified alternative to the PPD-40. The PPSh-41 saw ...

, Beretta Model 12,

Steyr MPi 69 The Steyr MPi 69 is a 9×19mm submachine gun of the late 20th century made by the Austrian firm Steyr. Characteristics The MPi 69 is shaped much like other telescoping bolt submachineguns, such as the MAC 10 or Uzi. It has a vertical pistol h ...

and

Remington Model 870 The Remington Model 870 is a Pump action shotgun, pump-action shotgun manufactured by Remington Arms, Remington Arms Company, LLC. It is widely used by the public for shooting sports, hunting and self-defense, as well as by law enforcement and mi ...

were employed by PLA bodyguard units. Several models of handguns were used, such as

Colt Cobra The Colt Cobra is a lightweight, aluminum-framed, double-action short-barrelled revolver, not to be confused with the Colt King Cobra. The Cobra was chambered in .38 Special, .38 Colt New Police, .32 Colt New Police, and .22 Long Rifle. It ...

.38 Special snub-nose revolvers,

Colt M1911A1 The Colt M1911 (also known as 1911, Colt 1911, Colt .45, or Colt Government in the case of Colt-produced models) is a single-action, recoil-operated, semi-automatic pistol chambered primarily for the .45 ACP cartridge. History Early histor ...

, Tokarev TT-33,

CZ 75 The CZ 75 is a semi-automatic pistol made by Czech Republic, Czech firearm manufacturer Česká zbrojovka Uherský Brod, ČZUB. First introduced in 1975, it is one of the original "Wonder Nine, wonder nines" and features a staggered-column magaz ...

, FN P35 and MAB PA-15 pistols. Squad weapons consisted of Bren Mk. I .303 (7.7mm),

MG 34 The MG 34 (shortened from German: ''Maschinengewehr 34'', or "machine gun 34") is a German recoil-operated air-cooled general-purpose machine gun, first tested in 1929, introduced in 1934, and issued to units in 1936. It introduced an entirely ...

RPK The RPK (, English: "Kalashnikov's hand-held machine gun"), sometimes inaccurately termed the RPK-47, is a Soviet 7.62×39mm light machine gun that was developed by Mikhail Kalashnikov in the early 1960s, in parallel with the AKM assault rifl ...

, RPD, PK/PKM,

FN MAG The FN MAG (, , ) is a Belgian 7.62 mm calibre, 7.62 mm general-purpose machine gun, designed in the early 1950s at Fabrique Nationale de Herstal, Fabrique Nationale (FN) by Ernest Vervier. It has been used by more than 80 countries and it h ...

and M60 light machine guns, with heavier Browning M1919A4 .30 Cal, Browning M2HB .50 Cal, SG-43/SGM Goryunov and DShKM machine guns being employed as platoon and company weapons. Soviet Dragunov SVD-63 sniper rifles and SIG SG 542 assault rifles equipped with telescopic sights were used for sniping. Grenade launchers and portable anti-tank weapons included

M203 The M203 is a single-shot 40 mm under-barrel grenade launcher designed to attach to a rifle. It uses the same rounds as the older stand-alone M79 break-action grenade launcher, which utilizes the high-low propulsion system to keep recoil forces ...

, M79,

M72 LAW The M72 LAW (light anti-tank weapon, also referred to as the light anti-armor weapon or LAW as well as LAWS: light anti-armor weapons system) is a portable one-shot unguided anti-tank weapon. In early 1963, the M72 LAW was adopted by the U.S. ...

and

RPG-7 The RPG-7 is a portable, reusable, unguided, shoulder-launched, anti-tank, rocket launcher. The RPG-7 and its predecessor, the RPG-2, were designed by the Soviet Union, and are now manufactured by the Russian company Bazalt. The weapon has t ...

rocket launchers A rocket launcher is a weapon that launches an rocket (weapon), unguided, rocket-propelled projectile. History The earliest rocket launchers documented in History of China#Ancient China, imperial China consisted of arrows modified by the a ...

whilst crew-served and indirect fire weapons comprised M1938 107 mm,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 77. 120-PM-38 (M-1938) 120 mm, MT-13 (M1943) 160 mm and 240 mm M-240 heavy mortars, plus DKB Grad-P 122 mm Light portable rocket systems,

SPG-9 The SPG-9 Kopyo (, transliterated: ''Stankovyi Protivotankovyi Granatomet "Kopyo"'' - Easel Anti-tank Grenade Launcher "Spear") is a tripod-mounted man-portable, 73mm caliber recoilless gun developed by the Soviet Union. It fires fin-stabilized, ...

73 mm,El-Assad, ''Civil Wars Volume 1: The Gun Trucks'' (2008), p. 135. B-10 82 mm, B-11 107 mm and M40A1 106 mm

recoilless rifle A Recoilless rifle (rifled), recoilless launcher (smoothbore), or simply recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated to "rr" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some fo ...

s (often mounted on

technicals Technicals may refer to: * Technical (vehicle), an improvised fighting vehicle often used in civil conflict * TECHNICALS, a clothing brand owned by Blacks Leisure Group See also * Technical (disambiguation) Technical may refer to: * Technical ...

Armoured and transport vehicles

The PSP militia fielded by 1977 a small

mechanized corps Mechanized infantry are infantry units equipped with armored personnel carriers (APCs) or infantry fighting vehicles (IFVs) for transport and combat (see also armoured corps). As defined by the United States Army, mechanized infantry is disting ...

made of

Panhard AML-90 The Panhard AML (''automitrailleuse légère'', or "light armoured car") is an Armored car (military), armoured car with reconnaissance capability. Designed by Panhard on a lightly armoured Four-wheel drive, 4×4 chassis, it weighs an estimated 5 ...

Kassis, ''30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon'' (2003), p. 57. and Staghound armoured cars,

AMX-13 The AMX-13 is a French light tank produced from 1952 to 1987. It served with the French Army, as the Char 13t-75 Modèle 51, and was exported to more than 26 other nations. Named after its initial weight of 13 tonnes, and featuring a tough and re ...

and M41A3 Walker Bulldog light tanks,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 122. M42A1 Duster SPAAGs, Panhard M3 VTT and

M113 armored personnel carrier The M113 is a fully tracked armored personnel carrier (APC) that was developed and produced by the FMC Corporation. The M113 was sent to United States Army Europe in 1961 to replace the mechanized infantry's M59 armored personnel carrier, M59 A ...

s seized from the Lebanese Army in February 1976, plus a fleet of gun trucks and

. The latter consisted of US

Willys M38A1 The Willys MD, formally the M38A1 Truck, Utility: 1/4 ton, 4x4, or the G758 by its U.S. Army Standard Nomenclature supply catalog designation, was a four-wheel drive, military light utility vehicle, made by Willys and Willys Motors / Kaiser Je ...

MD jeeps, Land-Rover series II-III,

Toyota Land Cruiser (J40) The Toyota Land Cruiser (J40), is a series of Toyota Land Cruiser, Land Cruisers made by Toyota from 1960 until 2001. The 40 series Land Cruisers featured a traditional body on frame construction, and most were built as 2-door models with slig ...

, Toyota Land Cruiser (J43), Chevrolet C-10/C-15 Cheyenne light pickup trucks,Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 31. Chevrolet C/K 3rd generation and Jeep Gladiator J20 light pickup trucks, GMC K1500 and GMC C4500 medium-duty trucks, and M35A2 2½-ton (6x6) military trucks, equipped with

heavy machine guns A heavy machine gun (HMG) is significantly larger than light machine gun, light, medium machine gun, medium or general-purpose machine guns. HMGs are typically too heavy to be man-portable (carried by one person) and require weapon mount, mountin ...

recoilless rifles A Recoilless rifle (rifled), recoilless launcher (smoothbore), or simply recoilless gun, sometimes abbreviated to "rr" or "RCL" (for ReCoilLess) is a type of lightweight artillery system or man-portable launcher that is designed to eject some fo ...

, and

Anti-aircraft Anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) is the counter to aerial warfare and includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It encompasses surface-based, subsurface ( submarine-launched), and air-ba ...

autocannons. These vehicles were partially supplanted in the early 1980s by new models, such as Soviet

UAZ-469 The UAZ-469 is an off-road vehicle, off-road military light utility vehicle manufactured by UAZ since 1971. It was used by Soviet Armed Forces, Soviet and other Warsaw Pact armed forces, as well as paramilitary units in Eastern Bloc countries. I ...

light utility vehicles,

Jeep CJ-5 The Jeep CJ models are a series and a range of small, open-bodied off-road vehicles and compact pickup trucks, built and sold by several successive incarnations of the Jeep automobile marque from 1945 through 1986. The 1945 Willys "Universal Jee ...

and Jeep CJ-8 (civilian versions of the Willys M38A1 MD jeep), Toyota Land Cruiser (J45), Toyota Land Cruiser (FJ70) 1984, Nissan Patrol 160-Series (3rd generation), Nissan 620 and Datsun 720 pickup trucks, whilst the disintegration of the Fourth Brigade allowed the PLA to seize a number of US M151A2 jeeps, M880/M890 Series CUCV, Chevrolet C-20 ScottsdaleNeville, ''Technicals: Non-Standard Tactical Vehicles from the Great Toyota War to modern Special Forces'' (2018), p. 15. and Dodge Ram (1st generation) pickup trucks, and M35A2 2½-ton cargo trucks, which they turned into

by arming them with Heavy machine guns, recoilless rifles and AA autocannons. They also captured four

Alvis Saladin The FV601 Saladin is a six-wheeled armoured car developed by Crossley Motors and later manufactured by Alvis. Designed in 1954, it replaced the AEC armoured car in service with the British Army from 1958 onward. The vehicle weighed 11 tonnes ...

armoured cars Armored (or armoured) car may refer to: Wheeled armored vehicles * Armored car (military), a wheeled armoured fighting vehicle * Armored car (valuables), an armored van or truck used to transport valuables * Armored car (VIP), a civilian vehic ...

, seven US-made

M48A5 The M48 Patton is an American first-generation main battle tank (MBT) introduced in February 1952, being designated as the 90mm Gun M48, armored, full-tracked, combat vehicle of the medium-gun tank class. It was designed as a replacement for ...

main battle tank A main battle tank (MBT), also known as a battle tank or universal tank or simply tank,Ogorkiewicz 2018 p222 is a tank that fills the role of armour-protected direct fire and maneuver in many modern armies. Cold War-era development of more po ...

s (MBTs),Kassis, ''30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon'' (2003), p. 59.

light tanks, and forty-three

M113 The M113 is a fully tracked armored personnel carrier (APC) that was developed and produced by the FMC Corporation. The M113 was sent to United States Army Europe in 1961 to replace the mechanized infantry's M59 APCs. The M113 was first used ...

APCs for their own armoured corps. The PLA's armoured units were further strengthened between 1983 and 1987 with the arrival of some 74

T-55A The T-54 and T-55 tanks are a series of Soviet medium tanks introduced in the years following the Second World War. The first T-54 prototype was completed at Nizhny Tagil by the end of 1945.Steven Zaloga, T-54 and T-55 Main Battle Tanks 1944–2 ...

MBTs, BTR-152V1,Kassis, ''30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon'' (2003), p. 58.

BTR-60PB The BTR-60 is the first vehicle in a series of Soviet eight-wheeled armoured personnel carriers (APCs). It was developed in the late 1950s as a replacement for the BTR-152 and was seen in public for the first time in 1961. BTR stands for ''bronet ...

, and

BMP-1 The BMP-1 is a Soviet Union, Soviet Amphibious vehicle, amphibious tracked infantry fighting vehicle that has been in service from 1966 to the present. BMP stands for ''Boyevaya Mashina Pyekhoty 1'' (), meaning "infantry fighting vehicle, 1st ...

Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), p. 61. APCs and two ZSU-23-4M1 Shilka SPAAGs supplied on loan by the DPFLP,

, and the

; a few M3/M9 Zahlam half-tracks were captured from the

in 1983. For logistical support, the PLA relied on Toyota Land Cruiser (J42)

hardtop A hardtop is a rigid form of automobile roof, typically metal, and integral to the vehicle's design, strength, and style. The term typically applies to a pillarless hardtop, a car body style without a B-pillar. The term "pillared hardtop" was ...

, Toyota Land Cruiser (J45)

and Nissan Patrol 160-Series (3rd generation) hardtop light pickups, Syrian-supplied

Mercedes-Benz Mercedes-Benz (), commonly referred to simply as Mercedes and occasionally as Benz, is a German automotive brand that was founded in 1926. Mercedes-Benz AG (a subsidiary of the Mercedes-Benz Group, established in 2019) is based in Stuttgart, ...

Unimog 416 The Unimog (pronunciation in American English: ''YOU-nuh-mog''; British English: ''YOU-knee-mog''; German: , ) is a Daimler Truck line of multi-purpose, highly offroad capable AWD vehicles produced since 1948. Utilizing engine-driven power tak ...

and

GAZ-66 The GAZ-66 is a Soviet Union, Soviet and later Russian four wheel drive, 4x4 all-road (off-road) military truck produced by GAZ. It was one of the main cargo vehicles for motorized infantry of the Soviet Army and is still employed in former Sovi ...

light trucks, GMC C4500 medium-duty trucks, Soviet

ZIL-131 The ZIL-131 is a general purpose 3.5 tonne 6x6 army truck designed in the Soviet Union by ZIL. The basic model being a general cargo truck. Variants include a tractor-trailer truck, a dump truck, a fuel truck, and a 6x6 for towing a 4-wheeled ...

(6x6) military trucks, Ural-4320 AWD (6x6) general purpose trucks, captured Israeli

AIL M325 Command Car The AIL M325 Command Car is a 4x4 military truck produced by the Automotive Industries Limited (AIL) of Nazareth in Israel from 1970 to 1993 for use by the Israel Defense Forces. The M325 is a light, versatile truck designed for carrying up to 12 ...

s ('Nun-Nun') and US M35A2 2½-ton (6x6) military trucks. A number of Soviet BTS-4 and VT-55KS Armoured Recovery Vehicles (ARV) and MAZ-537G tank transporters were also employed.Sex & Abi-Chahine, ''Modern Conflicts 2 – The Lebanese Civil War, From 1975 to 1991 and Beyond'' (2021), pp. 20-21; 52. Volkswagen (Type 2) T3 Transporter vans were used as military ambulances.

Artillery

The PLA also fielded a powerful artillery corps equipped with obsolete Soviet ZiS-2 57 mm anti-tank guns,Kassis, ''30 Years of Military Vehicles in Lebanon'' (2003), p. 61.Abi-Chahine, ''The People's Liberation Army Through the Eyes of a Lens, 1975–1991'' (2019), pp. 77; 81. M1944 (BS-3) 100 mm anti-tank and field guns, M101A1 105 mm towed field howitzers, Mle 1950 BF-50 155 mm howitzers, Soltam M-71 155 mm 39 caliber towed howitzers,

122 mm howitzer 2A18 (D-30) The 122-mm howitzer D-30 (GRAU index 2A18) is a Soviet howitzer that first entered service in 1960. It is a robust piece that focuses on the essential features of a towed field gun suitable for all conditions. The D-30 has a maximum range of or ...

130 mm towed field gun M1954 (M-46) The 130 mm towed field gun M-46 () is a manually loaded, towed 130 mm artillery piece, manufactured in the Soviet Union in the 1950s. It was first observed by the West in 1954. For many years, the M-46 was one of the longest range art ...

, Chinese Type 59-1 130mm field guns and M1955 (D-20) 152 mm towed gun-howitzers, whilst the rocket corps fielded truck-mounted BM-11 122 mm and BM-21 Grad 122 mm and towed Chinese Type 63 107 mm MBRLs. A small number of DEFA D921/GT-2 90mm anti-tank guns mounted on M3/M9 Zahlam half-tracks were captured from the

in 1983-84. Yugoslav Zastava M55 A2 20 mm, Soviet ZPU (ZPU-1, ZPU-2, ZPU-4) 14.5mm and ZU-23-2 23 mm Anti-aircraft

autocannon An autocannon, automatic cannon or machine cannon is a automatic firearm, fully automatic gun that is capable of rapid-firing large-caliber ( or more) armour-piercing, explosive or incendiary ammunition, incendiary shell (projectile), shells, ...

s (mostly mounted on

and BTR-152 and M113 APCs), and towed M1939 (61-K) 37 mm and AZP S-60 57 mm anti-aircraft guns were employed in both

air defense Anti-aircraft warfare (AAW) is the counter to aerial warfare and includes "all measures designed to nullify or reduce the effectiveness of hostile air action".AAP-6 It encompasses surface-based, subsurface (Submarine#Armament, submarine-lau ...

and direct fire supporting roles. In addition to AA guns and autocannons, the PLA received from Syria a number of man-portable, shoulder-launched Soviet

SA-7 Grail The 9K32 Strela-2 (; NATO reporting name SA-7 Grail) is a light-weight, shoulder-fired, surface-to-air missile or MANPADS system. It is designed to target aircraft at low altitudes with passive infrared-homing guidance and destroy them with a ...

surface-to-air (SAM) missiles which were used to bring down two Lebanese Air Force

Hawker Hunter The Hawker Hunter is a transonic British jet propulsion, jet-powered fighter aircraft that was developed by Hawker Aircraft for the Royal Air Force (RAF) during the late 1940s and early 1950s. It was designed to take advantage of the newly dev ...

fighter jets Fighter aircraft (early on also ''pursuit aircraft'') are military aircraft designed primarily for air-to-air combat. In military conflict, the role of fighter aircraft is to establish air superiority of the battlespace. Domination of the air ...

and one

Israeli Air Force The Israeli Air Force (IAF; , commonly known as , ''Kheil HaAvir'', "Air Corps") operates as the aerial and space warfare branch of the Israel Defense Forces (IDF). It was founded on May 28, 1948, shortly after the Israeli Declaration of Indep ...

(IAF) Kfir fighter-bomber jet during the 1983–84

(the pilot was rescued by the Lebanese Army).Guest, ''Lebanon'' (1994), p. 106. This source reports the loss as an American-made F-16, though it was actually an Israeli-made Kfir.

Sea craft

The Combat Swimmer and Maritime Special Operations detachment of the

-based Jal el Bahr "Commando" Company operated a small number of rubber inflatable dinghies that were used for seaborne infiltration operations.

Aircraft

In 1988, the PLA gained his greatest trophy when a Lebanese Air Force pilot, the Druze Lieutenant

Majed Karameh Majid or majeed may refer to: * , ''majīd'' 'majestic', and , ''mājid'' 'magnificent', two names of God in Islam Given name *Majid (name), Majed (name), or variant spellings, including a list of people with the given name or family name Arts an ...

, defected from Adma airfield located in the East Beirut canton, and flew his Aérospatiale SA 342K Gazelle attack helicopter to the Druze-controlled Chouf, where it was impounded upon landing and transported by a PLA MAZ-537G tank transporter to the Saïd el-Khateeb Barracks at

in the

. This particular helicopter appears to have never been used in combat by the PLA (since they had no aviation component, and therefore lacked the technically proficient personnel to help fly and maintain the captured airframe), which ended up being simply placed on storage at Hammana under the custody of the Druze 11th Infantry Brigade for the remainder of the Civil War.

Uniforms and insignia

Usually, PLA militiamen wore in the field a mix of military uniforms, western civilian clothes and traditional Druze garb,Katz and Volstad, ''Arab Armies of the Middle East Wars 2'' (1988), p. 37. though they were known to have worn a variety of battle dress, depending on whom they allied to and what other armed forces were occupying their territory.Katz, Russel, and Volstad, ''Armies in Lebanon'' (1985), pp. 44–45, Plate G3.

Fatigue clothing

Besides ex-

olive green Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives. As a color word in the English language, it appears in late Middle English. Variations Olivine Olivine is the typical color of the mineral olivine. The first re ...

fatigues (a special domestic variant of the

US Army The United States Army (USA) is the primary land service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is designated as the Army of the United States in the United States Constitution.Article II, section 2, clause 1 of the United Stat ...

OG-107 cotton sateen utilities), a light mustard khaki work uniform of Soviet origin was also issued to PLA combat troops, which consisted of a cotton shirt and pants. The shirt featured a six-buttoned front and two unpleated, pointed breast pockets closed by pointed flaps, was provided with shoulder straps and had long sleeves with buttoned cuffs. It was worn with matching trousers, which had two side slashed pockets, two pleated cargo pockets closed by straight, dual-buttoned flaps, and two internal pockets at the back, closed by pointed flaps. Locally-produced PLO copies of

Iraqi Army The Iraqi Ground Forces (Arabic: القوات البرية العراقية), also referred to as the Iraqi Army (Arabic: الجيش العراقي), is the ground force component of the Iraqi Armed Forces. It was formerly known as the Royal Iraq ...

olive green and light khaki fatigues, which comprised a shirt with a six-buttoned front, two pleated breast pockets closed by pointed flaps, shoulder straps and long sleeves with buttoned cuffs, plus matching trousers provided with two side slashed pockets and one internal pocket at the back, were widely worn by PLA militiamen.

olive green fatigues and captured Israeli

olive drab Olive is a dark yellowish-green color, like that of unripe or green olives. As a color word in the English language, it appears in late Middle English. Variations Olivine Olivine is the typical color of the mineral olivine. The first re ...

Uniform "B" (

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

: ''Madei Bet'') fatigues were used as well. Camouflage uniforms consisted of Czechoslovakian Vz 60 "Salamander" (''Mlok'') pattern fatigues, Iraqi

Highland Highlands or uplands are areas of high elevation such as a mountainous region, elevated mountainous plateau or high hills. Generally, ''upland'' refers to a range of hills, typically from up to , while ''highland'' is usually reserved for range ...

pattern (a.k.a. "Iraqi Woodland") fatigues, Italian M1929 Telo mimetico fatigues, West German

Bundeswehr The (, ''Federal Defence'') are the armed forces of the Germany, Federal Republic of Germany. The is divided into a military part (armed forces or ''Streitkräfte'') and a civil part, the military part consists of the four armed forces: Germ ...

1956 Splinter pattern jackets, Syrian or PLO Lizard horizontal and vertical patterns' fatigues, Syrian copies of the Pakistani Arid Brushstroke (nicknamed "Wisp") fatigues, captured U.S. Woodland

Battle Dress Uniform The Battle Dress Uniform (BDU) is a camouflaged combat uniform that was used by the United States Armed Forces as their standard combat uniform from the early 1980s to the mid-2000s. Since then, it has been replaced or supplanted in every bra ...

s (BDU), and Palestinian Brushstroke fatigues; the latter was a PLO Brushstroke variation incorporating very dark olive and purplish-brown strokes with very long and thin brush trails on a sandy-colored background. The PLA did develop though their own unique camouflage pattern, a hybrid

Lizard Lizard is the common name used for all Squamata, squamate reptiles other than snakes (and to a lesser extent amphisbaenians), encompassing over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most Island#Oceanic isla ...

/Pakistani Arid Brushstroke design, which was locally produced. T-shirts in US

pattern were sometimes used. Syrian-supplied OG US

M-1965 field jacket The M-1965 field jacket (also known as M65, M-65 field jacket, and Coat, Cold Weather, Man's Field), named for the year it was introduced, is a popular field jacket initially designed for the United States Army under the ''MIL-C-43455'' standard ...

s, captured Israeli olive green Dubon

Parka A parka, like the related anorak, is a type of coat (clothing), coat with a hood (headgear), hood, that may be lining (sewing), lined with fur or fake fur. Parkas and anoraks are staples of Inuit clothing, traditionally made from Reindeer, cari ...

sKatz, Russel, and Volstad, ''Armies in Lebanon'' (1985), p. 45, Plate G3. and ex-PLO Iraqi copies of the

Pakistan Army The Pakistan Army (, ), commonly known as the Pak Army (), is the Land warfare, land service branch and the largest component of the Pakistan Armed Forces. The president of Pakistan is the Commander-in-chief, supreme commander of the army. The ...

olive-brown woollen pullover (a.k.a. '') provided with breast pockets and shoulder straps, were worn in cold weather.

Headgear

PSP Beret and Soviet made Afghanistan War Panama Hat

Usual headgear consisted of ex-

Baseball cap A baseball cap is a type of soft cap, hat with a rounded crown and a stiff bill projecting in front. The front of the hat typically displays a design or a logo (historically, usually only a sports team, namely a baseball team, or names of releva ...

s (a domestic version of the US Army OG-106 Baseball cap), PLO patrol caps in lizard camouflage pattern, patrol caps in "Iraqi Woodland" camouflage pattern, and US BDU caps in U.S. Woodland camouflage pattern, and

black Black is a color that results from the absence or complete absorption of visible light. It is an achromatic color, without chroma, like white and grey. It is often used symbolically or figuratively to represent darkness.Eva Heller, ''P ...

midnight blue Midnight blue is a dark shade of blue named for its resemblance to the apparently blue color of a moonlit night sky around a full moon. Midnight blue is identifiably blue to the eye in sunlight Sunlight is the portion of the electromag ...

beret A beret ( , ; ; ; ) is a soft, round, flat-crowned cap made of hand-knitted wool, crocheted cotton, wool felt, or acrylic fibre. Mass production of berets began in the 19th century in Southern France and the north of History of Spain (1808 ...

s worn French-style, pulled to the left, whilst "commando" units wore

red Red is the color at the long wavelength end of the visible spectrum of light, next to orange and opposite violet. It has a dominant wavelength of approximately 625–750 nanometres. It is a primary color in the RGB color model and a seconda ...

maroon Maroon ( , ) is a brownish crimson color that takes its name from the French word , meaning chestnut. ''Marron'' is also one of the French translations for "brown". Terms describing interchangeable shades, with overlapping RGB ranges, inc ...

berets, although berets made of Pakistani brushstroke and PLA hybrid lizard/Pakistani brushstroke camouflage cloth were also worn by these special operations' formations. Soviet M-38 Field Hats in mustard khaki cotton (

Russian Russian(s) may refer to: *Russians (), an ethnic group of the East Slavic peoples, primarily living in Russia and neighboring countries *A citizen of Russia *Russian language, the most widely spoken of the Slavic languages *''The Russians'', a b ...

: ''Panamanka'') were worn in the summer, replaced by the traditional Druze tan knitted woollen cap in the winter; tan-khaki pile-type caps and

Ushanka An ushanka (, , from , ), also called an ushanka-hat (, ), is a Russian fur hat with ear-covering flaps that can be tied up on the crown of the cap, or fastened at the chin to protect the ears, jaw, and lower chin from the cold. An alternativ ...

-style shaggy black

fur A fur is a soft, thick growth of hair that covers the skin of almost all mammals. It consists of a combination of oily guard hair on top and thick underfur beneath. The guard hair keeps moisture from reaching the skin; the underfur acts as an ...

hats were sometimes seen. A black-and-white or red-and-white

kaffiyeh The keffiyeh (), also regionally known as a hattah (), ghutrah (), or shemagh (), is a traditional headdress worn by men from parts of the Middle East. It is fashioned from a square scarf, and is usually made of cotton. The keffiyeh is commonly ...

was also worn around the neck as a

foulard A foulard is a lightweight fabric, either twill or plain weave, plain-woven, made of silk or a mix of silk and cotton. Foulards usually have a small printed design of various colors. By metonymy, it can also be an article of clothing, such as scar ...

or wrapped around the head to conceal identity.

Helmets and body armour

In the field, PLA infantrymen could be found wearing a variety of helmet types, consisting of Syrian-supplied East German M-56, Soviet

SSh-60 The SSh-60 (СШ-60 (Russian: стальной шлем образца 1960 года/stalnoy shlyem, or steel helmet) was a product improvement of the Soviet SSh-40 steel helmet of the Soviet Army and entered production around 1960. It was not ...

and

SSh-68 The SSh-68 (Russian: СШ-68 �тальной шлем образца 1968 года/stalnoy shlyem English: SSh-68 steel helmet model 1968) - is a steel combat helmet of the Soviet and then Russian Armed Forces. The SSh-68 is a further development ...

steel helmets or captured US M-1 and French M1951 NATO (

: ''Casque Mle 1951 OTAN'') steel helmets, and Israeli Orlite OR-201 (Model 76) ballistic helmets. Armoured crews initially received the standard Lebanese Army dark green tanker's compressed fibre-and-leather crash helmet (French copy of the World War II US Army M-1938 Tanker Helmet, nicknamed the 'Gruyére'), followed by Soviet TSh-4M black tanker's padded cloth helmets, US fibreglass "bone dome" Combat Vehicle Crewman (CVC) T-56-6 helmets and CVC DH-132 helmets in ballistic Kevlar captured from the Lebanese Army. In addition to helmets, some PLA militiamen also used captured

flak jacket The two components of an obsolete British military flak vest. On the left, the ballistic_nylon.html" ;"title="nylon vest. On the right, the 12 layers of ballistic nylon">nylon vest. On the right, the 12 layers of ballistic nylon that provide the ...

s, either the Ballistic Nylon US M-1952/69 "Half-collar" vest and the Israeli-produced Kevlar Rabintex Industries Ltd

Type III RAV 200 Protective Vest Type may refer to: Science and technology Computing * Typing, producing text via a keyboard, typewriter, etc. * Data type, collection of values used for computations. * File type * TYPE (DOS command), a command to display contents of a file. * Ty ...

(

: "Shapats").

Footwear

PLA footwear was equally diverse. Black leather combat boots initially came from Lebanese Army stocksKatz, Russel, and Volstad, ''Armies in Lebanon'' (1985), pp. 44-45, Plate G3. or were provided by the PLO and the Syrians, complemented by Israeli black or brown leather paratrooper boots captured from the

and

high-top The high-top is a shoe that extends slightly over the wearer's ankle. It is commonly used for sports, particularly basketball. It is sometimes confused with the slightly shorter mid-top, which typically extends no higher than the wearer's ankle. ...

Pataugas olive canvas-and-rubber patrol boots. Several models of civilian

sneakers Sneakers (American English, US) or trainers (British English, UK), also known by a #Names, wide variety of other names, are shoes primarily designed for sports or other forms of physical exercise, but are also widely used for everyday casual ...

or "trainers" and "chucks", and rubber

gumboots A Wellington boot, often shortened to welly, and also known as a gumboot, rubber boot, or rain boot, is a type of waterproof boot made of rubber. Originally a type of leather riding boot adapted from Hessian boots, a style of military foot we ...

were also used by PLA militiamen.

Accoutrements

Web gear consisted on the US Army M-1956 load-carrying equipment (LCE) in

khaki The color khaki (, ) is a light shade of tan (color), tan with a slight yellowish tinge. Khaki has been used by many armies around the world for uniforms and equipment, particularly in arid or desert regions, where it provides camouflage rela ...

cotton canvas and the

all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment The all-purpose lightweight individual carrying equipment (ALICE) is a set of load-carrying equipment, adopted as United States Army Standard A on 17 January 1973. The ALICE system was developed from 1967 to 1972 in the LINCLOE (lightweight ind ...

(ALICE) in OG

Nylon Nylon is a family of synthetic polymers characterised by amide linkages, typically connecting aliphatic or Polyamide#Classification, semi-aromatic groups. Nylons are generally brownish in color and can possess a soft texture, with some varieti ...

captured from the Lebanese Army, ChiCom Type 56 AK, Type 56 SKS, Type 63 SKS and Type 81 AK chest rigs in

or olive green cotton fabric for the AK-47 assault rifle and the SKS semi-automatic rifle, Soviet three-cell and four-cell AK-47 magazine pouches in khaki or OG canvas, East German "raindrop" camouflage four-cell AK-47/AKM magazine pouches, and even IDF olive green

Ephod Combat Vests; several variants of locally-made, multi-pocket chest rigs and assault vests in camouflage cloth, khaki and OG canvas or Nylon were also widely used. Anti-tank teams issued with the

rocket launcher received the correspondent Soviet rocket bag models in

canvas, the Gunner Backpack 6SH12, the Assistant Gunner Backpack and the Munitions Bag 6SH11; Polish and East German versions in rubberized canvas were employed as well.

Insignia

Apart from sector, corps and unit flags, the PLA apparently never devised a system of rank, branch or unit insignia of their own, although its personnel did wear a variety of field recognition signs. A full-colour cloth embroidered round patch bearing the PSP crest was sometimes worn on the left pocket of fatigue shirts. Berets were worn with the standard PLA cap badge placed above the right eye; issued in gilt metal for all-ranks, it was sometimes found in the form of a

badge A badge is a device or accessory, often containing the insignia of an organization, which is presented or displayed to indicate some feat of service, a special accomplishment, a symbol of authority granted by taking an oath (e.g., police and fir ...

pinned to Soviet sun hats, Baseball caps and even combat uniforms. White, red, olive green and black T-shirts stamped with either the PSP logo, the PLA crest, PLA unit and sub-unit insignia or the Party leaders' effigy were commonly worn by Druze fighters. A red cloth or plastic

brassard A brassard or armlet is an armband or piece of cloth or other material worn around the upper arm; the term typically refers to an item of uniform worn as part of military uniform or by police or other uniformed persons. Unit, role, rank b ...

of roughly triangular shape and attached to a shoulder strap, bearing the stamped full-colour

crest with the initials "PSP" below in white

Latin script The Latin script, also known as the Roman script, is a writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, derived from a form of the Greek alphabet which was in use in the ancient Greek city of Cumae in Magna Graecia. The Gree ...

, flanked by the inscription of the Sector to which the bearer was assigned to and surmounted by another inscription bearing "People's Liberation Army" in white

Arabic script The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...

, was worn on the upper left arm (the Tanukh Brigade and Security Police Corps were issued their own versions in plastic). A simple red cloth or plastic oval armband bearing only the PSP crest with no lettering was also used. Steel helmets painted in red, marked with white stripes at the sides and the initials "PSP" were issued to Security Police Corps' troopers assigned patrol duties in urban areas.

In popular culture

The Druze PLA has made a few major film appearances, most notably in the 1981 West German anti-war film ''

Circle of Deceit Circle of Deceit may refer to: * ''Circle of Deceit'' (1981 film), German film * ''Circle of Deceit'' (1998 film), American TV film * '' Circles of Deceit'', British television thriller series {{disamb ...

'' (

German German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...

title: ''Die Fälschung''), where some of its fighters appear on a night chase scene driving

throughout the streets of west

. They are also mentioned in the 1990 American

military A military, also known collectively as armed forces, is a heavily armed, highly organized force primarily intended for warfare. Militaries are typically authorized and maintained by a sovereign state, with their members identifiable by a d ...

action film The action film is a film genre that predominantly features chase sequences, fights, shootouts, explosions, and stunt work. The specifics of what constitutes an action film has been in scholarly debate since the 1980s. While some scholars such as D ...

Navy SEALs The United States Navy Sea, Air, and Land (SEAL) Teams, commonly known as Navy SEALs, are the United States Navy's primary special operations force and a component of the United States Naval Special Warfare Command. Among the SEALs' main funct ...

'' and in the 2001 American

action Action may refer to: * Action (philosophy), something which is done by a person * Action principles the heart of fundamental physics * Action (narrative), a literary mode * Action fiction, a type of genre fiction * Action game, a genre of video gam ...

thriller Thriller may refer to: * Thriller (genre), a broad genre of literature, film and television ** Thriller film, a film genre under the general thriller genre Comics * ''Thriller'' (DC Comics), a comic book series published 1983–84 by DC Comics i ...

film A film, also known as a movie or motion picture, is a work of visual art that simulates experiences and otherwise communicates ideas, stories, perceptions, emotions, or atmosphere through the use of moving images that are generally, sinc ...

Spy Game ''Spy Game'' is a 2001 action thriller film directed by Tony Scott and written by Michael Frost Beckner and David Arata. The film stars Robert Redford and Brad Pitt as CIA operatives entangled in a covert rescue mission during the final day ...

'', appearing on a street fighting scene set during the War of the Camps in

. PLA troops are also featured on 1980s archived TV news footage in the episode of the 2018

Al Jazeera English Al Jazeera English (AJE; , ) is a 24-hour English-language News broadcasting, news channel operating under Al Jazeera Media Network, which is funded by the government of Qatar. Al Jazeera introduced an English-language division in 2006. It is ...

''War Hotels'' documentary series dedicated to the Commodore Hotel in west Beirut.How Beirut's Commodore Hotel became a safe haven for world media
''Aljazeera.com'', 11 December 2018

Notes

References

* Afaf Sabeh McGowan, John Roberts, As'ad Abu Khalil, and Robert Scott Mason
''Lebanon: A Country Study''
area handbook series, Headquarters, Department of the Army (DA Pam 550-24), Washington D.C. 1989. * Alain Menargues, ''Les Secrets de la guerre du Liban: Du coup d'état de Béchir Gémayel aux massacres des camps palestiniens'', Albin Michel, Paris 2004. (in

) * Aïda Kanafani-Zahar, «La réconciliation des druzes et des chrétiens du Mont Liban ou le retour à un code coutumier», Critique internationale, n23 (2004), pp. 55-75. (in

) * * Beate Hamizrachi, ''The Emergence of South Lebanon Security Belt'', Praeger Publishers Inc., New York 1984. * Boutros Labaki & Khalil Abou Rjeily, ''Bilan des guerres du Liban (1975-1990)'', Collection "Comprendre le Moyen-Orient", Éditions L'Harmattan, Paris 1993. (in

) * Chris McNab, ''20th Century Military Uniforms'' (2nd ed.), Grange Books, Kent 2002. * Chris McNab, ''Soviet Submachine Guns of World War II: PPD-40, PPSh-41 and PPS'', Weapon series 33, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2014. * Chris McNab, ''The SVD Dragunov Rifle'', Weapon series 87, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2023. * CIA Lebanon report, ''Directory of Libanese Militias – A Reference Aid'', NESA 84-10171C, June 1984, pp. 6–7. Declassified in Part – Sanitized Copy Approved for Release 2009/06/16: CIA-RDP85T00314R000100070001-4. �

*

Edgar O'Ballance Major Edgar "Paddy" O'Ballance (17 July 1918, Dublin, Ireland – 8 July 2009, Wakebridge, Derbyshire, England) was an Irish-born British military journalist, researcher, defence commentator and academic lecturer specialising in internatio ...

, ''Civil War in Lebanon, 1975–92'', Palgrave Macmillan, London 1998. * Elizabeth Bicard, ''Prospects for Lebanon – The Demobilization of the Lebanese Militias'', Centre for Lebanese Studies, Oxford 1999. * Éric Micheletti and Yves Debay, ''Liban – dix jours aux cœur des combats'', RAIDS magazine No. 41, October 1989, Histoire & Collections, Paris. (in

) * * Fawwaz Traboulsi, ''Identités et solidarités croisées dans les conflits du Liban contemporain; Chapitre 12: L'économie politique des milices: le phénomène mafieux'', Thèse de Doctorat d'Histoire – 1993, Université de Paris VIII, 2007. (in

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* * Jago Salmon, ''Massacre and Mutilation: Understanding the Lebanese Forces through their use of violence'', Workshop on the 'techniques of Violence in Civil War', PRIO, Oslo, 20–21 August 2004. �

* Jean Dunord, ''Liban: Les milices rendent leurs armes'', RAIDS magazine No. 65, October 1991, Histoire & Collections, Paris. (in

) * Jennifer Philippa Eggert, ''Female Fighters and Militants During the Lebanese Civil War: Individual Profiles, Pathways, and Motivations'', Studies in Conflict & Terrorism, Taylor & Francis Group, LLC, 2018. �

* Jennifer Philippa Eggert, ''Women and the Lebanese Civil War: Female Fighters in Lebanese and Palestinian Militias'', Palgrave Macmillan, London 2022 (1st edition). , 3030837874 * John C. Rolland (ed.), ''Lebanon: Current Issues and Background'', Nova Science Publishers, Hauppauge, New York 2003. �

* John Laffin, ''The War of Desperation: Lebanon 1982-85'', Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1985. * Joseph Hokayem, ''L'armée libanaise pendant la guerre: un instrument du pouvoir du président de la République (1975–1985)'', Lulu.com, Beyrouth 2012. (in

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* Ken Guest, ''Lebanon'', in ''Flashpoint! At the Front Line of Today's Wars'', Arms and Armour Press, London 1994, pp. 97–111. * * Leroy Thompson, ''The G3 Battle Rifle'', Weapon series 68, Osprey Publishing Ltd, Oxford 2019. *Ludovic Fortin, ''T17E1 Staghound Armored Car – Le char sur roues'', Trucks & Tracks Magazine No. 5, December 2007–January 2008, Caraktère, Marseille, pp. 48–67. (in

) * Makram Rabah, ''Conflict on Mount Lebanon: The Druze, the Maronites and Collective Memory'', Alternative Histories, Edinburgh University Press, 2020 (1st edition). * Matthew Hinson, ''Crimes on Sacred Ground: Massacres, Desecration, and Iconoclasm in Lebanon's Mountain War 1983-1984'', Honors Thesis Submitted to the Department of History, Georgetown University, 8 May 2017. �

* * Naomi Joy Weinberger, ''Syrian Intervention in Lebanon: The 1975–76 Civil War'', Oxford University Press, Oxford 1986. , 0195040104 *

Odd Karsten Tveit Odd Karsten Tveit (born 17 December 1945) is a Norwegian journalist, writer and economist. His speciality is the Middle East, a subject on which he has written several books. Tveit has been a foreign correspondent for the Norwegian Broadcasting ...

, ''Goodbye Lebanon: Israel's First Defeat'', Translated by Peter Scott-Hansen, Rimal Publication, 2010. * Oren Barak, ''The Lebanese Army: A National Institution in a Divided Society'', State University of New York Press, Albany 2009. �

* Paul Jureidini, R. D. McLaurin, and James Price, ''Military Operations in Selected Lebanese Built-Up Areas, 1975–1978'', Aberdeen, MD: U.S. Army Human Engineering Laboratory, Aberdeen Proving Ground, Technical Memorandum 11-79, June 1979. * Philipe Naud, ''La Guerre Civile Libanaise – 1re partie: 1975–1978'', Steelmasters Magazine No. 113, August–September 2012, Histoire & Collections, Paris, pp. 8–16. (in

) * * Riyaḍ Taqi al-Din, ''Al-Tajribah al-ʿAskarīyah al-Durzīyah wa-Masāruhā al-Taqaddumī'', . p. Beirut 1987. (in

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Robert Fisk Robert William Fisk (12 July 194630 October 2020) was an English writer and journalist. He was critical of United States foreign policy in the Middle East, and the Israeli government's treatment of Palestinians. As an international correspo ...

, ''Pity the Nation: Lebanon at War'', London: Oxford University Press, (3rd ed. 2001). �

* * * * Samuel M. Katz, Lee E. Russel & Ron Volstad, ''Armies in Lebanon 1982–84'', Men-at-Arms series 165, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1985. * Samuel M. Katz & Ron Volstad, ''Arab Armies of the Middle East Wars (2)'', Men-at-Arms series 194, Osprey Publishing Ltd, London 1988. * Samir Makdisi and Richard Sadaka, ''The Lebanese Civil War, 1975–1990'', American University of Beirut, Institute of Financial Economics, Lecture and Working Paper Series (2003 No.3), pp. 1–53. �

* Steven J. Zaloga, ''Tank Battles of the Mid-East Wars (2): The Wars of 1973 to the Present'', Concord Publications, Hong Kong 2003. �

* Thomas Collelo (ed.), ''Lebanon: A Country Study'', Library of Congress, Federal Research Division, Headquarters, Department of the Army (DA Pam 550-24), Washington D.C., December 1987 (Third edition 1989). �

*Tom Najem and Roy C. Amore, ''Historical Dictionary of Lebanon'', Second Edition, Historical Dictionaries of Asia, Oceania, and the Middle East, Rowman & Littlefield Publishers, Lanham, Boulder, New York & London 2021. , 1538120437 * Tim Llewellyn, ''Spirit of the Phoenix: Beirut and the Story of Lebanon'', I.B. Tauris, London 2010. �

* * Walid Khalidi, ''Conflict and Violence in Lebanon: Confrontation in the Middle East'', fourth printing (Cambridge, Massachusetts: Harvard Studies in International Affairs, 1984). * Yann Mahé, ''La Guerre Civile Libanaise, un chaos indescriptible! (1975–1990)'', Trucks & Tanks Magazine No. 41, January–February 2014, Caraktère, Aix-en-Provence, pp. 78–81. (in

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External links

Chamussy (René) – Chronique d'une guerre: Le Liban 1975-1977 – éd. Desclée – 1978
(in

)
Histoire militaire de l'armée libanaise de 1975 à 1990
(in

)
PLA camouflage patterns

PLA vehicles in the Lebanese civil war

Progressive Socialist Party official site
(in

)
PSP al-Anba'a official newspaper site
(in

)
War Hotels: How Beirut's Commodore Hotel became a safe haven for world media (Aljazeera English documentary)
Factions in the Lebanese Civil War Military wings of political parties Lebanese National Movement Progressive Socialist Party Druze in Lebanon History of the Druze Druze militant groups

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