The People's Council of America for Democracy and the Terms of Peace, commonly known as the "People's Council," was an American

pacifist Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ''a ...

political organization established in

New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...

in May 1917. Organized in opposition to the decision of the

Woodrow Wilson Thomas Woodrow Wilson (December 28, 1856February 3, 1924) was the 28th president of the United States, serving from 1913 to 1921. He was the only History of the Democratic Party (United States), Democrat to serve as president during the Prog ...

administration's decision to enter

World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...

, the People's Council attempted to mobilize American workers and

intellectual An intellectual is a person who engages in critical thinking, research, and Human self-reflection, reflection about the nature of reality, especially the nature of society and proposed solutions for its normative problems. Coming from the wor ...

s against the war effort through publication of literature and the conduct of mass meetings and public demonstrations. The organization's dissident views made it a target of federal, state, and local authorities, who disrupted its meetings and arrested a number of its leading participants under provisions of the

Espionage Act The Espionage Act of 1917 is a United States federal law enacted on June 15, 1917, shortly after the United States entered World War I. It has been amended numerous times over the years. It was originally found in Title 50 of the U.S. Code ( ...

. The People's Council was succeeded in 1919 by a new group based in the same New York City headquarters, the People's Freedom Union.

Organizational history

Forerunners

The eruption of

in August 1914 saw its response in the United States of America with the emergence of a national peace movement. One of the pioneer American

organizations was the

Woman's Peace Party The Woman's Peace Party (WPP) was an American Pacifism, pacifist and First-wave feminism, feminist organization formally established in January 1915 in response to World War I. The organization is remembered as the first American peace organizatio ...

, initiated by Chicago social worker

Jane Addams Laura Jane Addams (September 6, 1860May 21, 1935) was an American Settlement movement, settlement activist, Social reform, reformer, social worker, sociologist, public administrator, philosopher, and author. She was a leader in the history of s ...

. In October 1914, the Minneapolis chapter of this organization passed a "Tentative Program for a Constructive Peace," which called for the convocation of an international conference of Neutral countries to bring an end to the European conflict. Archibald Stevenson, ed., ''Revolutionary Radicalism: Its History, Purpose and Tactics with an Exposition and Discussion of the Steps Being Taken and Required to Curb It, Being the Report of the Joint Legislative Committee Investigating Seditious Activities, Filed April 24, 1920, in the Senate of the State of New York: Part 1: Revolutionary and Subversive Movements Abroad and at Home, Volume 1.'' Albany, NY: J.B. Lyon Co., 1920; pg. 971. Hereafter: ''Lusk Report.'' The Woman's Peace Party organized a mass meeting in Chicago early in December 1914, from which emerged a December 19 session which brought together 21 delegates from various peace, labor, political, religious, and civic organizations. This alliance of interested organizations constituted itself as the Chicago Emergency Peace Federation.Stevenson (ed.), ''Lusk Report,'' vol. 1, pg. 972. The Emergency Peace Federation elected

socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...

Louis P. Lochner its executive secretary, with Jane Addams continuing to play a leading role in the organization as well. The group issued a publication known as the ''Emergency Peace Federation Bulletin,'' and was the organizing force behind a national peace conference held in Chicago from February 27 to 28, 1915.Stevenson (ed.), ''Lusk Report,'' vol. 1, pg. 974. Throughout 1915 and 1916, a coordinated campaign was conducted in the United States on behalf of military "Preparedness," culminating on July 22, 1916 with

Preparedness Day The Preparedness Movement was a campaign led by former Chief of Staff of the U.S. Army, Leonard Wood, and former President Theodore Roosevelt to strengthen the U.S. military after the outbreak of World War I. Wood advocated a summer training sc ...

. This campaign for increased military spending in the shadow of the European bloodbath drove American

pacifists Pacifism is the opposition to war or violence. The word ''pacifism'' was coined by the French peace campaigner Émile Arnaud and adopted by other peace activists at the tenth Universal Peace Congress in Glasgow in 1901. A related term is ''a ...

to action. One of the groups organized in an effort to staunch America's slide to war was the

American Union Against Militarism The American Union Against Militarism (AUAM) was an American pacifist organization established in response to World War I. The organization attempted to keep the United States out of the European conflict through mass demonstrations, public lectu ...

, founded in January 1916 from an "Anti-Preparedness Committee" established the previous year.Frank Moore Colby with Allen Leon Churchill, "International Peace and Arbitration," i
''The New International Year Book: A Compendium of the World's Progress for the Year 1917.''
New York: Dodd, Mead and Co., 1918; pg. 362. In early 1917, the American Union Against Militarism were leading advocates for the idea of holding of a national

referendum A referendum, plebiscite, or ballot measure is a Direct democracy, direct vote by the Constituency, electorate (rather than their Representative democracy, representatives) on a proposal, law, or political issue. A referendum may be either bin ...

on the question of American entry into the European war, believing that those agitating for foreign intervention were a distinct minority of the population. A third pacifist organization emerged in February 1917, just as America appeared on the cusp of entering the European conflagration. This New York group, originally called the Emergency Peace Committee, dedicated itself to agitating for a continuation of the policy of American neutrality towards the World War combatants. This group later emerged as the New York Emergency Peace Federation, and worked hand-in-glove with the Chicago organization of the same name. The Emergency Peace Federation rallied a group of thousands to the United States Capital to oppose

American entry into World War I The United States entered into World War I on 6 April 1917, more than two and a half years after the war began in Europe. Apart from an Anglophile element urging early support for the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, British and an a ...

on April 2, 1917. One member,

Alexander Bannwart Alexander William Bannwart (December 25, 1880 – February 21, 1959), also known as Al Winn, was a Swiss-American businessman. He was involved in baseball, politics, and real estate. Bannwart graduated from Phillips Academy and Princeton Univers ...

, got into a fistfight with

U.S. Senator The United States Senate is a chamber of the bicameral United States Congress; it is the upper house, with the U.S. House of Representatives being the lower house. Together, the Senate and House have the authority under Article One of the ...

Henry Cabot Lodge Henry Cabot Lodge (May 12, 1850November 9, 1924) was an American politician, historian, lawyer, and statesman from Massachusetts. A member of the History of the Republican Party (United States), Republican Party, he served in the United States ...

. That day, President

delivered a speech to

Congress A congress is a formal meeting of the representatives of different countries, constituent states, organizations, trade unions, political parties, or other groups. The term originated in Late Middle English to denote an encounter (meeting of ...

calling for a declaration of war against

Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...

. As pro-war fervor swept the country, a new phase was entered by activists in the American peace movement — attempting to terminate Wilson's so-called "War to Make the World Safe for Democracy." In keeping with this new task, these three main pacifist organizations of America joined forces in a new organization, ultimately known as the People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace.

Establishment

On May 2, 1917, more than 40 members of the Emergency Peace Federation assembled at the

Hotel Astor Hotel Astor was a hotel on Times Square in the Midtown Manhattan neighborhood of New York City, New York, U.S. Built in 1905 and expanded in 1909–1910 for the Astor family, the hotel occupied a site bounded by Broadway, Shubert Alley, and 4 ...

in New York City to consider the course for the peace movement in America.Frank L. Grubbs, Jr., ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty: Gompers, the AF of L, and the Pacifists, 1917-1920.'' Durham, NC: Duke University Press, 1968; pg. 22. Participants were split between radicals and pacifists who favored the peace conditions advanced by the

Bolshevik The Bolsheviks, led by Vladimir Lenin, were a radical Faction (political), faction of the Marxist Russian Social Democratic Labour Party (RSDLP) which split with the Mensheviks at the 2nd Congress of the Russian Social Democratic Labour Party, ...

government of

Soviet Russia The Russian Soviet Federative Socialist Republic (Russian SFSR or RSFSR), previously known as the Russian Socialist Federative Soviet Republic and the Russian Soviet Republic, and unofficially as Soviet Russia,Declaration of Rights of the labo ...

— including

Morris Hillquit Morris Hillquit (August 1, 1869 – October 8, 1933) was a founder and leader of the Socialist Party of America and prominent labor lawyer in New York City's Lower East Side. Together with Eugene V. Debs and Congressman Victor L. Berger, Hillqu ...

Norman Thomas Norman Mattoon Thomas (November 20, 1884 – December 19, 1968) was an American Presbyterian religious minister, minister, political activist, and perennial candidate for president. He achieved fame as a socialism, socialist and pacifism, pacifis ...

, and Roger Baldwin — and those who favored a more moderate and Americanized approach. When this latter group, headed by

Lillian Wald Lillian D. Wald (March 10, 1867 – September 1, 1940) was an American nurse, humanitarian and author. She strove for human rights and started American community nursing. She founded the Henry Street Settlement in New York City and was an early ...

of the

, realized that it was in the minority, it walked out of the meeting in order to retain its independence from the forthcoming organization. Those remaining determined to establish a new peace organization, patterned loosely on the workingmen's councils of Russia. Socialist leader Morris Hillqut was named the ceremonial Chairman of the organizing committee of the new group and Louis P. Lochner was tapped as Secretary, in charge of day-to-day activities. Lochner's attempt to build a broad-based organization ran into difficulty. Prominent liberals sympathetic to the Wilson administration, such as attorney Frank P. Walsh, refused to associate with the organization.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 23. Radicals were more sympathetic, with a number of prominent members of the

Socialist Party of America The Socialist Party of America (SPA) was a socialist political party in the United States formed in 1901 by a merger between the three-year-old Social Democratic Party of America and disaffected elements of the Socialist Labor Party of America ...

and left-wing members of the American Union Against Militarism joining the new group's ranks, as well as key members of the Emergency Peace Federation, such as

rabbi A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...

Judah L. Magnes. A "Tentative Program" was circulated on May 7, in preparation for the gathering. New York City's

Madison Square Garden Madison Square Garden, colloquially known as the Garden or by its initials MSG, is a multi-purpose indoor arena in New York City. It is located in Midtown Manhattan between Seventh Avenue (Manhattan), Seventh and Eighth Avenue (Manhattan), Eig ...

was booked for an organizational mass meeting.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 24.

Stanford University Leland Stanford Junior University, commonly referred to as Stanford University, is a Private university, private research university in Stanford, California, United States. It was founded in 1885 by railroad magnate Leland Stanford (the eighth ...

President

David Starr Jordan David Starr Jordan (January 19, 1851 – September 19, 1931) was the founding president of Stanford University, serving from 1891 to 1913. He was an ichthyologist during his research career. Prior to serving as president of Stanford Universi ...

, a leading public figure among the American peace movement, was sought as a keynote speaker. Lochner appealed to the

American Federation of Labor The American Federation of Labor (A.F. of L.) was a national federation of labor unions in the United States that continues today as the AFL-CIO. It was founded in Columbus, Ohio, in 1886 by an alliance of craft unions eager to provide mutual ...

to also lend its support to the new peace organization.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 25. AFL President

Samuel Gompers Samuel Gompers (; January 27, 1850December 11, 1924) was a British-born American cigar maker, labor union leader and a key figure in American labor history. Gompers founded the American Federation of Labor (AFL) and served as the organization's ...

replied angrily in the negative, answering Lochner's cable with a terse declaration that "I prefer not to ally myself with the conscious or unconscious agents of the Kaiser in America." Despite Gompers' refusal, work on the new organization proceeded apace, with a program committee consisting of Hillquit, Lochner, Norman Thomas, Henry W. L. Dana of

Columbia University Columbia University in the City of New York, commonly referred to as Columbia University, is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in New York City. Established in 1754 as King's College on the grounds of Trinity Churc ...

, and peace activists Rebecca Shelly and Elisabeth Freeman named.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 26. The committee decided to endorse a peace proposal calling for peace without annexations or indemnities and the

self-determination Self-determination refers to a people's right to form its own political entity, and internal self-determination is the right to representative government with full suffrage. Self-determination is a cardinal principle in modern international la ...

of all peoples as a basis of its own demands and to cooperate closely with the staunchly

anti-militarist Antimilitarism (also spelt anti-militarism) is a doctrine that opposes war, relying heavily on a critical theory of imperialism and was an explicit goal of the First and Second International. Whereas pacifism is the doctrine that disputes (especi ...

Socialist Party. Leading academics were targeted by Lochner and brought into the new organization's fold during the initial preparatory period, including such worthies as economists Emily Green Balch and

Scott Nearing Scott Nearing (August 6, 1883 – August 24, 1983) was an American radical economist, educator, writer, political activist, pacifist, vegetarian and advocate of simple living. Biography Early years Nearing was born in Morris Run, Tioga County ...

.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 27. Lochner envisioned an organization which was nationwide in scope and that would unite local peace organizations from around the United States.

First American Conference for Democracy and Terms of Peace

At 10 am on May 30, 1917, the Madison Square Garden organizational meeting, called the First American Conference for Democracy and Terms of Peace, was gaveled to order by Judah Magnes.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 29. The meeting was held amidst a strong presence by New York City police, who feared violence either by revolutionary participants or

nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...

mobs intent on dispersing attendees. Policemen carrying riot guns were posted on street corners surrounding Madison Square Garden, while police vehicles cruised the streets. More than 400 policemen were detailed to the operation. Delegates began work on a preamble which called upon Americans to "aid our government in bringing to ourselves and the world a speedy, righteous, and lasting peace." Magnes delivered the keynote address, later published as a pamphlet in an edition of 50,000 copies, in which he bitterly attacked Britain and France for pursuing a war which offered little of worth to the working class, and intimating that the United States was engaged in a war to preserve

capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...

in Europe. Also addressing the gathering was

Algernon Lee Algernon H. Lee (September 15, 1873 – January 5, 1954) was an American socialist politician and educator. In addition to serving as a member of the New York City Council (then the New York City Board of Aldermen) during World War I, Lee was on ...

of the Socialist Party-affiliated

Rand School of Social Science The Rand School of Social Science was formed in 1906 in New York City by adherents of the Socialist Party of America. The school aimed to provide a broad education to workers, imparting a politicizing class-consciousness, and additionally served a ...

, who detailed ongoing efforts of the Zimmerwald movement to hold an international peace conference at

Stockholm Stockholm (; ) is the Capital city, capital and List of urban areas in Sweden by population, most populous city of Sweden, as well as the List of urban areas in the Nordic countries, largest urban area in the Nordic countries. Approximately ...

.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 30. Lee read a statement written by Morris Hillquit detailing a concrete plan for the participation of the leading belligerents in such a gathering and the establishment of an international body to resolve future economic disagreements amongst the warring parties — proposals which met with strong approval from the assembled delegates. Afternoon speakers included Professor William I. Hull, a former college student of Woodrow Wilson's, who cautioned the President against making secret agreements with the

Entente powers The Allies or the Entente (, ) was an international military coalition of countries led by the French Republic, the United Kingdom, the Russian Empire, the United States, the Kingdom of Italy, and the Empire of Japan against the Central Powers ...

which might in the future commit the United States to participation in future wars. Former Socialist Congressman

Victor L. Berger Victor Luitpold Berger (February 28, 1860August 7, 1929) was an Austrian–American socialist politician and journalist who was a founding member of the Social Democratic Party of America and its successor, the Socialist Party of America. Born in ...

also spoke, bitterly condemning the wartime

profiteering Profiteering is a pejorative term for the act of making a profit by methods considered unethical. Overview Business owners may be accused of profiteering when they raise prices during an emergency ( especially a war). The term is also applied to ...

of the American ruling class. An evening session on the labor movement was addressed by

James Maurer James Hudson Maurer (April 15, 1864 – March 16, 1944) was a prominent American socialist politician and trade unionist who twice ran for the office of vice president of the United States on the ticket of the Socialist Party of America. He served ...

, a Socialist Party activist who was the elected leader of the AFL in Pennsylvania. Maurer focused his rhetoric upon Samuel Gompers and the national leadership of the AFL, which he charged had sold out the interests of the working class to the interests of the

capitalist class The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted with ...

.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 31. Maurer was followed at the rostrum by Scott Nearing, who emphasized the need of Americans to support an activist labor movement, without which American workers would be suppressed by the combined forces of big business and the government during the war. On the second day of the conference, sociologist

Florence Kelley Florence Molthrop Kelley (September 12, 1859 – February 17, 1932) was an American social and political reformer who coined the term wage abolitionism. Her work against sweatshops and for the minimum wage, eight-hour workdays, and children's ...

called on the Wilson administration to improve working conditions of American workers. Numerous speakers followed calling for the repeal of

military conscription Conscription, also known as the draft in the United States and Israel, is the practice in which the compulsory enlistment in a national service, mainly a military service, is enforced by law. Conscription dates back to antiquity and it conti ...

and an endorsement of the policy of immediate peace without annexations or indemnities. In the afternoon a formal call was made by Rebecca Shelly for the establishment of a new national organization, the People's Council of America, composed of locals across the country organized through universal suffrage and national referendums. Shelly called for a national convention to be held in the

Midwest The Midwestern United States (also referred to as the Midwest, the Heartland or the American Midwest) is one of the four census regions defined by the United States Census Bureau. It occupies the northern central part of the United States. It ...

on September 1, for the establishment of a national office for the fledgling organization, and for the publication of a regular bulletin for national distribution.Grubbs, ''The Struggle for Labor Loyalty,'' pg. 32. These proposals were approved by the assembled delegates, and the People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace was formally born. The People's Council maintained its national headquarters in New York City in an office located at 2 West 13th Street.

Repression

The People's Council frequently saw its gatherings banned or disbanded. On August 24, 1917, a meeting of the organization in

Philadelphia Philadelphia ( ), colloquially referred to as Philly, is the List of municipalities in Pennsylvania, most populous city in the U.S. state of Pennsylvania and the List of United States cities by population, sixth-most populous city in the Unit ...

was disrupted and shut down by a mob of soldiers and sailors."The People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace,"
''The Advocate of Peace'' ashington, DC vol. 59, no. 9 (October 1917), pp. 279-280. That same day, city authorities in

Memphis Memphis most commonly refers to: * Memphis, Egypt, a former capital of ancient Egypt * Memphis, Tennessee, a major American city Memphis may also refer to: Places United States * Memphis, Alabama * Memphis, Florida * Memphis, Indiana * Mem ...

denied the group use of a public hall for its meeting. On August 28, a People's Council gathering in

Fargo, North Dakota Fargo is the List of cities in North Dakota, most populous city in the U.S. state of North Dakota and the county seat of Cass County, North Dakota, Cass County. The population was 125,990 at the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, which was e ...

, was quashed by the coordinated mass singing of "The Star-Spangled Banner." On August 30, 1917, a mob of 1,000 gathered in Hudson, WI and held a night rally in front of the armory protesting the attempt by the People's Council to hold a conference in the city's prizefighting arena. The crowd then moved on the four organizers in the lobby of their hotel and threatened to hang them. Only after the pleadings of county attorney N. O. Varnum were the four allowed to leave town at once and unharmed. Effort was made to hold a national conference in

Minneapolis Minneapolis is a city in Hennepin County, Minnesota, United States, and its county seat. With a population of 429,954 as of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, it is the state's List of cities in Minnesota, most populous city. Locat ...

on September 1, but the organization was denied use of a hall in the city. When the alternative of meeting in a

circus tent A circus is a company of performers who put on diverse entertainment shows that may include clowns, acrobats, trained animals, trapeze acts, musicians, dancers, hoopers, tightrope walkers, jugglers, magicians, ventriloquists, and unicycl ...

was advanced, With less than a week remaining before the start of its scheduled national convention,

Minnesota Minnesota ( ) is a U.S. state, state in the Upper Midwestern region of the United States. It is bordered by the Canadian provinces of Manitoba and Ontario to the north and east and by the U.S. states of Wisconsin to the east, Iowa to the so ...

Governor Joseph Burquist of Minnesota intervened to ban the People's Council from gathering anywhere in the state on the grounds that it would give aid and comfort to the enemies of the United States.Peterson and Fife, ''Opponents of War,'' pp. 76-77. The People's Council scrambled and attempted to hold its convention in Chicago, but the event was broken up by the police.Peterson and Fife, ''Opponents of War,'' pg. 77. When Chicago Mayor "Big Bill" Thompson attempted to reverse this action, on the grounds that "pacifists are law-abiding citizens" and that he would not "have it spread broadcast that Chicago denies free speech to anyone," Illinois Governor

Frank Lowden Frank Orren Lowden (January 26, 1861 – March 20, 1943) was an American Republican Party politician who served as the 25th Governor of Illinois and as a United States Representative from Illinois. He was also a candidate for the Republican pre ...

responded by mobiling the

Illinois National Guard The Illinois National Guard comprises both Army National Guard and Air National Guard components of Illinois. As of 2013, the Illinois National Guard has approximately 13,200 members. The National Guard is the only United States military force e ...

, sending four companies of troops to Chicago the next day to make sure that the People's Council could not gather. The People's Council sought to make

President

its delegate to a proposed September 9, 1917, peace meeting in

, but political pressure seems to have forced Jordan to decline the appointment and sever all relations with the organization as its treasurer effective September 1 of that year.

Publications

Beginning August 7, 1917, the People's Council published a tabloid-sized monthly (later semi-monthly) newspaper called ''The Bulletin of the People's Council of America.''"The Bulletin of the People's Council of America,"
Janus catalog, University of Oregon, Eugene, OR. The publication was terminated effective with the issue of January 1919. A run of the publication exists on microfilm as reel 2 of the Swarthmore College Peace Collection's People's Council of America papers.
Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore College, www.swarthmore.edu/ The organization also issued a plethora of

pamphlet A pamphlet is an unbound book (that is, without a Hardcover, hard cover or Bookbinding, binding). Pamphlets may consist of a single sheet of paper that is printed on both sides and folded in half, in thirds, or in fourths, called a ''leaflet'' ...

s, including material written by

Max Eastman Max Forrester Eastman (January 4, 1883 – March 25, 1969) was an American writer on literature, philosophy, and society, a poet, and a prominent political activist. Moving to New York City for graduate school, Eastman became involved with radica ...

Judah Magnes Judah Leon Magnes (; July 5, 1877 – October 27, 1948) was a prominent Reform rabbi in both the United States of America and Mandatory Palestine. He is best remembered as a leader in the pacifist movement of the World War I period, his advocacy ...

, and Alexander Trachtenberg.

Dissolution and legacy

The People's Council was succeeded in the post-war period by the People's Freedom Union, which operated from the same New York headquarters and carried forward the People's Council's publishing imprint, "The People's Print." This new incarnation of the People's Council dedicated itself to the fight to free

political prisoners A political prisoner is someone imprisoned for their political activity. The political offense is not always the official reason for the prisoner's detention. There is no internationally recognized legal definition of the concept, although ...

, to stop the spread of militarism, and to halt military intervention in

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

and

. An archive of papers relating to the People's Council of America may be found at

Swarthmore College Swarthmore College ( , ) is a Private college, private Liberal arts colleges in the United States, liberal arts college in Swarthmore, Pennsylvania, United States. Founded in 1864, with its first classes held in 1869, Swarthmore is one of the e ...

in Pennsylvania. The bulk of the collection has been filmed on two reels of microfilm, both of which are available through

inter-library loan Inter-library loan (abbreviated ILL, sometimes called document delivery, document supply, inter-lending, inter-library services, inter-loan, or resource sharing) is a service that enables patrons of one library to borrow materials that are held by ...

. Papers related to the People's Council of America as well as the American Alliance for Labor and Democracy may be found in the Frank Leslie Grubbs collection, housed at the Hoover Institution archives at

Palo Alto Palo Alto ( ; Spanish language, Spanish for ) is a charter city in northwestern Santa Clara County, California, United States, in the San Francisco Bay Area, named after a Sequoia sempervirens, coastal redwood tree known as El Palo Alto. Th ...

, California."Overview of the Frank Leslie Grubbs collection,"
Online Archive of California, Collection 82097. The collection includes one folder of material and ten reels of microfilm gathering correspondence, minutes, and printed publications.

Footnotes

Publications

''Report of the First American Conference for Democracy and Terms of Peace, Held at Madison Square Garden, New York City, May 30th and 31st, 1917.''
New York: Organizing Committee, People's Council of American for Democracy and Peace, n.d.

917 __NOTOC__ Year 917 ( CMXVII) was a common year starting on Wednesday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * August 20 – Battle of Achelous: A Byzantine expeditionary force (62,000 men) under General Leo Ph ...

* ''The People's Council for Democracy and Peace.'' New York: People's Council for Democracy and Peace, 1917. * ''British Labor Demands: A People's Peace...'' New York: People's Council of America, 1917. * ''The Case Against Universal Military Training.'' New York: People's Council, 1917. * ''Democracy and Peace: Why the World is at War and What Must Come Out of the Struggle.'' New York: People's Council of America, 1918. * ''Patriotism by Patriots: For the Heroes of 1917.'' Los Angeles: Southern California Organizing Committee of the People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, n.d

* ''Peace Terms of Belligerent Governments.'' Committee on Terms of Peace of the People's Council of America, n.d.

* ''People of America, Unite for Peace.'' New York: People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, n.d.

* ''People's Peace Terms.'' New York: Committee on Terms of Peace of the People's Council of America, n.d.

* ''Secret Diplomacy and Profiteering: Hidden Treaties Published by Bolsheviki...'' New York: People's Council of America, 1918. * ''Three Things You Should Do!'' New York: People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, n.d.

* ''Who are the Bolsheviki? The Truth about the New Government of Russia.'' Chicago: Chicago People's Council, n.d. . 1918 * Max Eastman, ''Washington to Petrograd — Via Rome: Some Observations on President Wilson's Reply to Pope Benedict XV.'' New York: People's Council of America, 1917. * Judah Leon Magnes, ''For Democracy and Terms of Peace: Address at Opening of First American Conference for Democracy and Terms of Peace, New York City, May 30–31, 1917.'' New York: People's Council, 1917. * Judah Leon Magnes, ''Let the Peace Conference Convene.'' Chicago: People's Council of America, 1917. * William E. Mason; James H Maurer; and John D. Works, ''Things We Care About.'' New York: People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, 1917. * Basil Maxwell Manly, ''War: Who Gets the Profits? What are You Going to Do about It?'' New York: People's Council of America, 1917. * Scott Nearing, ''Open Letters to Profiteers: An Arraignment of Big Business in its Relation to the World War.'' New York: People's Council of America, 1917. * Theodore Schroeder, ''The Meaning of Free Speech for Pacifists: A Statement.'' New York: People's Council of America for Democracy and Peace, n.d. . 1917 * Alexander Trachtenberg, ''The Message of New Russia: The Answer Given by the Largest Nation in Western Civilization to the Question: What Shall We Do with Plutocracy at Home and Abroad? Excerpts from an Article.'' New York: People's Council of America, n.d.

918 __NOTOC__ Year 918 (Roman numerals, CMXVIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Europe * December 23 – King Conrad I of Germany, Conrad I, injured at one of his battles with Arnulf, D ...

* John D. Works and Morris Hillquit, ''Why We Are at War.'' Milwaukee: People's Council of Milwaukee, 1917.

External links

Swarthmore College Peace Collection, Swarthmore College. {{DEFAULTSORT:People's Council of America for Peace and Democracy 1917 establishments in the United States 1919 disestablishments in the United States Opposition to World War I Organizations disestablished in 1919 Organizations established in 1917 Peace organizations based in the United States Presidency of Woodrow Wilson United States home front during World War I

Organizational history

Forerunners

Establishment

First American Conference for Democracy and Terms of Peace

Repression

Publications

Dissolution and legacy

See also

Footnotes

Publications

Further reading

External links