November 1918 Insurgency In Alsace–Lorraine
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As a result of the end of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
and the
German revolution of 1918–1919 German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
, an
insurrection Rebellion is an uprising that resists and is organized against one's government. A rebel is a person who engages in a rebellion. A rebel group is a consciously coordinated group that seeks to gain political control over an entire state or a ...
ary movement inspired by
communism Communism () is a political sociology, sociopolitical, political philosophy, philosophical, and economic ideology, economic ideology within the history of socialism, socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a ...
formed workers' and soldiers' councils in several cities of Alsace-Lorraine from 8 to 22 November 1918. The red flag was thus hoisted atop
Strasbourg Cathedral Strasbourg Cathedral or the Cathedral of Our Lady of Strasbourg (, or ''Cathédrale de Strasbourg'', ), also known as Strasbourg Minster (church), Minster (), is a Catholic cathedral in Strasbourg, Alsace, France. Although considerable parts of ...
. The councils dissolved themselves in the face of advancing French troops moving towards cities evacuated by the German authorities following the signing of the
Armistice An armistice is a formal agreement of warring parties to stop fighting. It is not necessarily the end of a war, as it may constitute only a cessation of hostilities while an attempt is made to negotiate a lasting peace. It is derived from t ...
. The entry of General Gouraud’s 4th Army into
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
on 22 November 1918 brought an end to the uprisings in the region, which was then reattached to
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
. Unlike the revolutions in the
Bavarian Soviet Republic The Bavarian Soviet Republic (or Bavarian Council Republic), also known as the Munich Soviet Republic (), was a short-lived unrecognised socialist state in Bavaria during the German revolution of 1918–1919. A group of communists and anarchist ...
,
Hungarian Soviet Republic The Hungarian Soviet Republic, also known as the Socialist Federative Soviet Republic of Hungary was a short-lived communist state that existed from 21 March 1919 to 1 August 1919 (133 days), succeeding the First Hungarian Republic. The Hungari ...
, and
Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia ( ; Czech language, Czech and , ''Česko-Slovensko'') was a landlocked country in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland beca ...
, this revolutionary episode did not lead to the creation of a genuine
Soviet republic A soviet republic (from ), also called council republic, is a republic in which the government is formed of soviets (workers' councils) and politics are based on soviet democracy. During the Revolutions of 1917–1923, various revolutionary ...
. During its brief existence, the movement facilitated a political transition between the collapse of the
German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...
and the establishment of French administration in the
departments Department may refer to: * Departmentalization, division of a larger organization into parts with specific responsibility Government and military * Department (administrative division), a geographical and administrative division within a country, ...
of
Bas-Rhin Bas-Rhin () is a department in Alsace which is a part of the Grand Est region of France. The name means 'Lower Rhine', referring to its lower altitude among the two French Rhine departments: it is downstream of the Haut-Rhin (Upper Rhine) de ...
,
Haut-Rhin Haut-Rhin (); Alsatian: ''Owerelsàss'' or '; , . is a department in the Grand Est region, France, bordering both Germany and Switzerland. It is named after the river Rhine; its name means Upper Rhine. Haut-Rhin is the smaller and less pop ...
, and
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
.


Overview

In the wake of the
German Revolution German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
, councils of workers and soldiers ''(Soldaten- und Arbeiterräte)'' formed in
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
on 9 November and in
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
and
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
on 10 November, in parallel to other such bodies set up in the general revolutionary atmosphere of the expiring
Reich ( ; ) is a German word whose meaning is analogous to the English word " realm". The terms and are respectively used in German in reference to empires and kingdoms. In English usage, the term " Reich" often refers to Nazi Germany, also ca ...
and in imitation of the Russian equivalent ''
soviets The Soviet people () were the citizens and nationals of the Soviet Union. This demonym was presented in the ideology of the country as the "new historical unity of peoples of different nationalities" (). Nationality policy in the Soviet Union ...
''. Under the Empire of 1871–1918, the territory constituting the ''Reichsland'' (or Imperial Province) of Alsace-Lorraine was administered directly by the imperial government in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
, and was granted some measure of autonomy in 1911. Similarly, the
Kaiser Kaiser ( ; ) is the title historically used by German and Austrian emperors. In German, the title in principle applies to rulers anywhere in the world above the rank of king (). In English, the word ''kaiser'' is mainly applied to the emperors ...
was also the local sovereign of the Land, so that
Kaiser Wilhelm II Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia from 1888 until his abdication in 1918, which marked the end of the German Empire as well as the Hohenzollern dynasty ...
's abdication on 9 November involved the fall of the monarchy both at the national and at the regional level, with a consequent legal power vacuum. In this chaotic situation the
Landtag A ''Landtag'' (State Diet) is generally the legislative assembly or parliament of a federated state or other subnational self-governing entity in German-speaking nations. It is usually a unicameral assembly exercising legislative competence ...
proclaimed itself the supreme authority of the land with the name of ''Nationalrat'' and the Soviet of Strasbourg claimed the foundation of a Republic of Alsace-Lorraine, while the pro-
bourgeoisie The bourgeoisie ( , ) are a class of business owners, merchants and wealthy people, in general, which emerged in the Late Middle Ages, originally as a "middle class" between the peasantry and aristocracy. They are traditionally contrasted wi ...
Majority German Social Democratic Party Reichstag representative for Colmar
Jacques Peirotes Jacques Laurent Peirotes (11 September 1869 Strasbourg – 4 September 1935) was a French and German politician, mayor of Strasbourg from 1919 to 1929. Biography The young Jacques Peirotes, son of a carpenter working at the locomotives factor ...
announced the establishment of the French rule, asking
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
to send troops quickly. While the workers' and soldiers' councils disbanded themselves with the departure of the German troops between 11 and 17 November, the arrival of the
French Army The French Army, officially known as the Land Army (, , ), is the principal Army, land warfare force of France, and the largest component of the French Armed Forces; it is responsible to the Government of France, alongside the French Navy, Fren ...
stabilized the situation: French troops put the region under
military occupation Military occupation, also called belligerent occupation or simply occupation, is temporary hostile control exerted by a ruling power's military apparatus over a sovereign territory that is outside of the legal boundaries of that ruling pow ...
and entered Strasbourg on 21 November. The MSPD led National Council proclaimed the return of Alsace to France on 5 December, even though this process did not gain international recognition until the signature of the
Treaty of Versailles The Treaty of Versailles was a peace treaty signed on 28 June 1919. As the most important treaty of World War I, it ended the state of war between Germany and most of the Allies of World War I, Allied Powers. It was signed in the Palace ...
in
1919 Events January * January 1 ** The Czechoslovak Legions occupy much of the self-proclaimed "free city" of Pressburg (later Bratislava), enforcing its incorporation into the new republic of Czechoslovakia. ** HMY ''Iolaire'' sinks off th ...
. The Alsace-Lorraine Republic of Councils (or ''Alsace-Lorraine Soviet Republic''; ; ; ;
Moselle Franconian Moselle Franconian (; ) is a West Central German language, part of the Central Franconian languages area, that includes Luxembourgish. Overview Moselle Franconian is spoken in the southern Rhineland and along the course of the Moselle, i ...
/) was a short-lived
Soviet republic A soviet republic (from ), also called council republic, is a republic in which the government is formed of soviets (workers' councils) and politics are based on soviet democracy. During the Revolutions of 1917–1923, various revolutionary ...
created during the
German Revolution German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
at the end of
World War I World War I or the First World War (28 July 1914 – 11 November 1918), also known as the Great War, was a World war, global conflict between two coalitions: the Allies of World War I, Allies (or Entente) and the Central Powers. Fighting to ...
in the province of Alsace-Lorraine, which had been part of
Germany Germany, officially the Federal Republic of Germany, is a country in Central Europe. It lies between the Baltic Sea and the North Sea to the north and the Alps to the south. Its sixteen States of Germany, constituent states have a total popu ...
since 1871. But it was never a genuine council republic like the Bavarian Soviet Republic, because there was no organised resistance against the French occupation to defend the revolutionary council movement in Alsace-Lorraine, which, anyhow, exposed the internal weaknesses of the movement itself. Disquiet had spread amongst Alsatian soldiers, the Spartacist propaganda was popular in the Western Front particularly in early 1918, and some soldiers were
USPD The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (, USPD) was a short-lived political party in Germany during the German Empire and the Weimar Republic. The organization was established in 1917 as the result of a split of anti-war members of t ...
members themselves and this was one of the originals of the subsequent revolutionary movements. There was an insurrection by Alsatian troops at the
Beverloo Camp Beverloo Camp (, ) was a military installation at Leopoldsburg (Bourg-Léopold in French), Belgium; 70 km southeast of Antwerp. The camp was created in 1835, shortly after the Belgian Revolution, independence of Belgium from the Netherlands. ...
on 12 May 1918. In October 1918, the
Imperial German Navy The Imperial German Navy or the ''Kaiserliche Marine'' (Imperial Navy) was the navy of the German Empire, which existed between 1871 and 1919. It grew out of the small Prussian Navy (from 1867 the North German Federal Navy), which was mainly for ...
, whose surface ships had largely remained in port after the
Battle of Jutland The Battle of Jutland () was a naval battle between Britain's Royal Navy Grand Fleet, under Admiral John Jellicoe, 1st Earl Jellicoe, Sir John Jellicoe, and the Imperial German Navy's High Seas Fleet, under Vice-Admiral Reinhard Scheer, durin ...
(1916), was ordered to leave port to fight the British
Royal Navy The Royal Navy (RN) is the naval warfare force of the United Kingdom. It is a component of His Majesty's Naval Service, and its officers hold their commissions from the King of the United Kingdom, King. Although warships were used by Kingdom ...
. However, the naval troops refused to obey: this led to a sailors' mutiny at Kiel. The mutineers took over the main military port and were quickly joined by workers and the trade unions. The revolution spread quickly across Germany, overthrowing the
monarchy A monarchy is a form of government in which a person, the monarch, reigns as head of state for the rest of their life, or until abdication. The extent of the authority of the monarch may vary from restricted and largely symbolic (constitutio ...
within a few days. At that time, about 15,000 Alsatians and Lorrainers had been incorporated into the Imperial Navy. Several of them joined the insurrection, and decided to rouse their homeland to revolt. On 8 November, the proclamation of a '' Republic of Councils'' in
Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...
was aired in Strasbourg, the capital of Alsace. Inspired by this, thousands of demonstrators rallied on the
Place Kléber The Place Kléber (''Kleberplatz'' in German) is the central square of Strasbourg, France. As the largest square at the center of Strasbourg, in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after French revolutionary general Jean-Ba ...
, the main square in Strasbourg, to acclaim the first insurgents returning from northern Germany. A train controlled by insurgents was blocked on the
Kehl Kehl (; ) is a city with around 38,000 inhabitants in the southwestern Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg. It lies in the region of Baden on the Rhine River, at the confluence with the smaller Kinzig (Rhine), Kinzig River, directly oppo ...
bridge, and a loyal commander ordered to shoot on the train. One insurgent was killed, but his fellows took control of the city of Kehl. From Strasbourg, the revolution spread throughout Alsace and Lorraine, and similar Soviets were established in
Haguenau Haguenau (; or ; ; historical ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Bas-Rhin Département in France, department of France, of which it is a Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture. It is second in size in the Bas-Rhin only to Strasbourg ...
,
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
,
Sélestat Sélestat (; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Schlettstàdt''; German: ''Schlettstadt'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Grand Est region of France. An administrative division (Subprefectures in France, sous-préfecture) of the Bas-Rhin Depa ...
,
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
,
Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...
, and other cities. The insurgent seamen established the Soldiers' Council of Strasbourg, and took control of the city. A council of workers and soldiers was then established, with the leader of the brewery workers' union presiding. Red flags flew all over the city, including on the spire of the cathedral. An
amnesty Amnesty () is defined as "A pardon extended by the government to a group or class of people, usually for a political offense; the act of a sovereign power officially forgiving certain classes of people who are subject to trial but have not yet be ...
was declared, and
freedom of the press Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic Media (communication), media, especially publication, published materials, shoul ...
was proclaimed. Factory workers went on strike, demanding higher wages; the Soviets (councils) raised wages by decree against the opposition of the factory owners. The
Social Democratic Party The name Social Democratic Party or Social Democrats has been used by many political parties in various countries around the world. Such parties are most commonly aligned to social democracy as their political ideology. Active parties Form ...
leader in Strasbourg,
Jacques Peirotes Jacques Laurent Peirotes (11 September 1869 Strasbourg – 4 September 1935) was a French and German politician, mayor of Strasbourg from 1919 to 1929. Biography The young Jacques Peirotes, son of a carpenter working at the locomotives factor ...
, then asked the French generals to send in their troops to restore order. Eleven days later, France occupied and incorporated Alsace-Lorraine. French soldiers under the command of general
Henri Gouraud Henri Gouraud (17 November 1867 - 16 September 1946) was a French army general. He played a central role in the colonization of French Africa and the Levant. During World War I, he fought in major battles such as those of the Argonne, the Dard ...
entered the suburbs of Strasbourg on 22 November 1918, strikes were terminated by force, and agitators were arrested. The streets named "Rue du 22 novembre" in Strasbourg and Mulhouse commemorate the return of Alsace to France. The region lost its recently acquired autonomy and reverted to the centralised French system as the ''
département In the administrative divisions of France, the department (, ) is one of the three levels of government under the national level (" territorial collectivities"), between the administrative regions and the communes. There are a total of 101 ...
s'' of
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
and
Haut Haut may refer to: * ''Haut'' (newspaper), a newspaper published in Luxembourg * Walter Haut (1922–2005), American airman who played a role in the Roswell UFO incident See also *Haute (disambiguation) Haute may refer to: People * Nicholas ...
and
Bas-Rhin Bas-Rhin () is a department in Alsace which is a part of the Grand Est region of France. The name means 'Lower Rhine', referring to its lower altitude among the two French Rhine departments: it is downstream of the Haut-Rhin (Upper Rhine) de ...
.


The Situation until 1914

Under the terms of the Treaty of Frankfurt of 10 May 1871, following the
Franco-Prussian War The Franco-Prussian War or Franco-German War, often referred to in France as the War of 1870, was a conflict between the Second French Empire and the North German Confederation led by the Kingdom of Prussia. Lasting from 19 July 1870 to 28 Janua ...
, the territories that were ceded by
France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...
to the
German Empire The German Empire (),; ; World Book, Inc. ''The World Book dictionary, Volume 1''. World Book, Inc., 2003. p. 572. States that Deutsches Reich translates as "German Realm" and was a former official name of Germany. also referred to as Imperia ...
formed the "Imperial Territory of Alsace-Lorraine" (in German: ''Reichsland Elsaß-Lothringen''), which was considered the common property of the twenty-five
states State most commonly refers to: * State (polity), a centralized political organization that regulates law and society within a territory **Sovereign state, a sovereign polity in international law, commonly referred to as a country **Nation state, a ...
making up the German federal state. In practice, Alsace-Lorraine was directly under the authority of the Imperial Crown and enjoyed a special status within the Empire: the territory was governed by the federal authority, represented in the region by a senior officer based in Strasbourg, initially called the ''Oberpräsident'', later the
Statthalter In the Low Countries, a stadtholder ( ) was a steward, first appointed as a medieval official and ultimately functioning as a national leader. The ''stadtholder'' was the replacement of the duke or count of a province during the Burgundian and ...
or "Governor". From
1874 Events January * January 1 – New York City annexes The Bronx. * January 2 – Ignacio María González becomes head of state of the Dominican Republic for the first time. * January 3 – Third Carlist War: Battle of Caspe &n ...
, the
German Constitution The Basic Law for the Federal Republic of Germany () is the constitution of the Federal Republic of Germany. The West German Constitution was approved in Bonn on 8 May 1949 and came into effect on 23 May after having been approved by the oc ...
was applied to Alsace-Lorraine, whose population was represented by deputies in the Reichstag, the lower chamber of the federal parliament in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
. Laws concerning the Reichsland were voted on by the Bundesrat, the upper chamber. The region was divided into three
districts A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or counties, several municipalities, subdivisions ...
(
Lorraine Lorraine, also , ; ; Lorrain: ''Louréne''; Lorraine Franconian: ''Lottringe''; ; ; is a cultural and historical region in Eastern France, now located in the administrative region of Grand Est. Its name stems from the medieval kingdom of ...
,
Lower Alsace Lower Alsace (northern Alsace) was a landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire held ''ex officio'' by the Bishop of Strasbourg. Prior to is acquisition by the bishopric, it was held by the counts of Hüneburg. In 1174 Count Gottfried of Hüneburg wa ...
, and
Upper Alsace Upper Alsace (southern Alsace) was a landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire centred on Ensisheim and Landser, north of the County of Ferrette (Pfirt). The counts of Habsburg ruled the territory from the 1130s down to its cession to France in ...
), each with its own assembly, or Bezirkstag. These three assemblies appointed the members of the regional delegation of the Reichsland in Strasbourg, the ''Landesausschuss'', which initially had only an advisory role in
1874 Events January * January 1 – New York City annexes The Bronx. * January 2 – Ignacio María González becomes head of state of the Dominican Republic for the first time. * January 3 – Third Carlist War: Battle of Caspe &n ...
, but was granted legislative and financial powers under the supervision of the Bundesrat in
1877 Events January * January 1 – Queen Victoria is proclaimed Empress of India by the Royal Titles Act 1876, introduced by Benjamin Disraeli, the Prime Minister of the United Kingdom . * January 8 – Great Sioux War of 1876: Batt ...
. On 31 May
1911 Events January * January 1 – A decade after federation, the Northern Territory and the Australian Capital Territory are added to the Commonwealth of Australia. * January 3 ** 1911 Kebin earthquake: An earthquake of 7.7 m ...
, the federal authorities granted a regional constitution to the Reichsland, which was from then on considered a fully-fledged German
Land Land, also known as dry land, ground, or earth, is the solid terrestrial surface of Earth not submerged by the ocean or another body of water. It makes up 29.2% of Earth's surface and includes all continents and islands. Earth's land sur ...
and given greater autonomy. The ''Landesausschuss'' was replaced by a now-elected assembly, the Landtag, or "regional parliament", which sat in the Alsace-Lorraine Diet Palace. Despite the existence of these representative bodies, real power in Alsace-Lorraine remained in the hands of the Imperial Army, as revealed by the Saverne Affair in
1913 Events January * January – Joseph Stalin travels to Vienna to research his ''Marxism and the National Question''. This means that, during this month, Stalin, Hitler, Trotsky and Tito are all living in the city. * January 3 &ndash ...
.


The World War I in the Region

Diplomatic tensions in Europe during the summer of
1914 This year saw the beginning of what became known as the First World War, after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austrian throne was Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip ...
prompted
Emperor Wilhelm II Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia from 1888 until his abdication in 1918, which marked the end of the German Empire as well as the Hohenzollern dynasty's ...
to proclaim a "state of imminent war danger" (Kriegsgefahrzustand) on 31 July, placing German civil power under the control of the military authorities. As early as 1 August, these authorities suspended individual liberties,
press freedom Freedom of the press or freedom of the media is the fundamental principle that communication and expression through various media, including printed and electronic media, especially published materials, should be considered a right to be exerc ...
, and the rights of assembly and
association Association may refer to: *Club (organization), an association of two or more people united by a common interest or goal *Trade association, an organization founded and funded by businesses that operate in a specific industry *Voluntary associatio ...
. On the same day, as Germany entered the war, a
state of siege ''State of Siege'' () is a 1972 French–Italian–West German political thriller film directed by Costa-Gavras starring Yves Montand and Renato Salvatori. The story is based on an actual incident in 1970, when U.S. official Dan Mitrione was k ...
was established across its territory, marking the beginning of a
military dictatorship A military dictatorship, or a military regime, is a type of dictatorship in which Power (social and political), power is held by one or more military officers. Military dictatorships are led by either a single military dictator, known as a Polit ...
driven by fear of
treason Treason is the crime of attacking a state (polity), state authority to which one owes allegiance. This typically includes acts such as participating in a war against one's native country, attempting to Coup d'état, overthrow its government, spy ...
. In Alsace-Lorraine, the German authorities banned
French-language French ( or ) is a Romance language of the Indo-European family. Like all other Romance languages, it descended from the Vulgar Latin of the Roman Empire. French evolved from Northern Old Gallo-Romance, a descendant of the Latin spoken in ...
newspapers A newspaper is a Periodical literature, periodical publication containing written News, information about current events and is often typed in black ink with a white or gray background. Newspapers can cover a wide variety of fields such as poli ...
and implemented repressive measures: purges, arrests, and deportations. Those suspected of sympathising with France were arrested and interned in various fortresses throughout the German Empire. At the same time, over 380,000 Alsatians and Lorrainers were conscripted into the German army, including 16,000 in the navy, to fight against the Entente forces, including France. France, for its part, was driven by a desire to reclaim the "lost provinces" of Alsace-Lorraine and by a spirit of revenge against Germany dating back to
1871 Events January–March * January 3 – Franco-Prussian War: Battle of Bapaume – Prussians win a strategic victory. * January 18 – Proclamation of the German Empire: The member states of the North German Confederation and the sout ...
. The first French offensives were launched in
Upper Alsace Upper Alsace (southern Alsace) was a landgraviate of the Holy Roman Empire centred on Ensisheim and Landser, north of the County of Ferrette (Pfirt). The counts of Habsburg ruled the territory from the 1130s down to its cession to France in ...
and the
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
region of Lorraine, aiming to quickly capture
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
,
Morhange Morhange (; ; Lorraine Franconian ''Märchinge'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Population See also * Communes of the Moselle department The following is a list of the 725 communes of the ...
, and
Sarrebourg Sarrebourg (; also , ; Lorraine Franconian: ; older ) is a commune of northeastern France. In 1895 a Mithraeum was discovered at Sarrebourg at the mouth of the pass leading from the Vosges Mountains. Geography Sarrebourg is located in the ...
— all in vain. While the Battle of the Frontiers ended in German victories, the situation in the
Vosges The Vosges ( , ; ; Franconian and ) is a range of medium mountains in Eastern France, near its border with Germany. Together with the Palatine Forest to the north on the German side of the border, they form a single geomorphological unit and ...
stabilised by the end of
1914 This year saw the beginning of what became known as the First World War, after Archduke Franz Ferdinand of Austria, heir to the Austrian throne was Assassination of Archduke Franz Ferdinand, assassinated by Serbian nationalist Gavrilo Princip ...
. The war became bogged down in this part of the Western Front. Neither the Battle of Hartmannswillerkopf nor that of
Liège Liège ( ; ; ; ; ) is a City status in Belgium, city and Municipalities in Belgium, municipality of Wallonia, and the capital of the Liège Province, province of Liège, Belgium. The city is situated in the valley of the Meuse, in the east o ...
brought about any major changes to the regional front, despite the thousands of casualties on both sides.


Projects of Autonomy and Neutrality

Following the setbacks suffered by the German army in France and
Belgium Belgium, officially the Kingdom of Belgium, is a country in Northwestern Europe. Situated in a coastal lowland region known as the Low Countries, it is bordered by the Netherlands to the north, Germany to the east, Luxembourg to the southeas ...
during the summer of
1918 The ceasefire that effectively ended the World War I, First World War took place on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of this year. Also in this year, the Spanish flu pandemic killed 50–100 million people wor ...
, the political situation in Germany began to shift in the autumn. With an Entente victory appearing likely, the German government announced autonomy for Alsace-Lorraine in an attempt to retain the region within the Empire. The aim was to grant the ''Reichsland'' the status of a
federated state A federated state (also State (polity), state, province, region, Canton (administrative division), canton, Länder, land, governorate, oblast, emirate, or country) is a territorial and constitutional community forming part of a federation ...
, similar to the twenty-five other German states. In September 1918, the staff of Army Group Albrecht von Württemberg founded ''the Alsatian Bund'', an association intended to promote German influence in Alsace against the aspirations of francophile Alsatians hoping for reunification with France. On 8 October 1918, the Mayor of Strasbourg,
Rudolf Schwander Rudolf Schwander (23 December 1868 – 25 December 1950) was a German politician and social reformer. He was, among other things, the Mayor of Strasbourg and High Commissioner of Hesse-Nassau. Life Born in Alsace (which was then French, b ...
, was summoned to Berlin and offered the post of ''Statthalter'' (Governor) of Alsace-Lorraine; he took office on 14 October. Karl Hauss, head of the Alsatian-Lorraine Centre Party parliamentary group in the Landtag, was appointed ''Staatssekretär'' (State Secretary) on 19 October and tasked with forming a regional government. By appointing both a
Protestant Protestantism is a branch of Christianity that emphasizes Justification (theology), justification of sinners Sola fide, through faith alone, the teaching that Salvation in Christianity, salvation comes by unmerited Grace in Christianity, divin ...
and a
Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
, the German federal government hoped to address religious sensitivities in the region. However, this move provoked the wrath of Eugène Ricklin, nicknamed the "Lion of the
Sundgau Sundgau ( or ; ) is a geographical territory in the southern Alsace region (Haut Rhin and Territoire de Belfort, Belfort), on the eastern edge of France. The name is derived from Alemannic German ''Sunt-Gau (territory), gowe'' ("South shire"), den ...
" and president of the second chamber of the Landtag. On 23 October, Ricklin addressed the '' Reichstag'' in Berlin to oppose the autonomy project, arguing that it was merely an attempt to transform the Reichsland into a federated state that would remain part of the German Empire. In his view, the future of the region was an international matter, exceeding the bounds of Germany and needing to be decided at the forthcoming
peace conference A peace conference is a diplomatic meeting where representatives of states, armies, or other warring parties converge to end hostilities by negotiation and signing and ratifying a peace treaty. Significant international peace conferences in ...
— in which he likely hoped to play a role. The autonomy project ultimately failed due to the refusal of several Alsatian-Lorraine parties to join the government formed by Schwander and Hauss. From 1 November, the two were left to manage only day-to-day affairs. Hauss agreed to this role on the condition that he would not be obliged to act in support of keeping Alsace-Lorraine within the Empire. As the autonomy plan collapsed, the German federal government shifted its strategy to promoting neutrality for Alsace-Lorraine — that is, neither German nor French — invoking the principle of self-determination. After initially supporting the autonomy project, the ''Alsatian Bund'' began advocating for a neutral territory. On 6 November, leaflets calling for the creation of a neutral free republic in Alsace-Lorraine were distributed in
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
, Mulhouse, and Strasbourg. Neutralist posters were also put up in the streets of Strasbourg and Mulhouse, championing the right to self-determination.


The Revolution in November 1918

In the autumn of
1918 The ceasefire that effectively ended the World War I, First World War took place on the eleventh hour of the eleventh day of the eleventh month of this year. Also in this year, the Spanish flu pandemic killed 50–100 million people wor ...
, despite the prospect of imminent defeat, the command of the Imperial Navy ordered an attack on the Royal Navy in one final
naval battle Naval warfare is combat in and on the sea, the ocean, or any other battlespace involving a major body of water such as a large lake or wide river. The armed forces branch designated for naval warfare is a navy. Naval operations can be broadly d ...
. The announcement triggered a
mutiny Mutiny is a revolt among a group of people (typically of a military or a crew) to oppose, change, or remove superiors or their orders. The term is commonly used for insubordination by members of the military against an officer or superior, ...
on 30 October 1918 aboard two German ships anchored in the port of
Kiel Kiel ( ; ) is the capital and most populous city in the northern Germany, German state of Schleswig-Holstein. With a population of around 250,000, it is Germany's largest city on the Baltic Sea. It is located on the Kieler Förde inlet of the Ba ...
. The arrest of the mutineers led to demonstrations by sailors demanding the release of their
comrades In political contexts, comrade means a fellow party member. The political use was inspired by the French Revolution, after which it grew into a form of address between socialists and workers. Since the Russian Revolution, popular culture in the ...
. The workers of the city supported them, forming workers’ and soldiers’ councils, or "
soviets The Soviet people () were the citizens and nationals of the Soviet Union. This demonym was presented in the ideology of the country as the "new historical unity of peoples of different nationalities" (). Nationality policy in the Soviet Union ...
": on 5 November, a call for a
general strike A general strike is a strike action in which participants cease all economic activity, such as working, to strengthen the bargaining position of a trade union or achieve a common social or political goal. They are organised by large coalitions ...
was launched. In the following days, revolutionary councils were established across the German Empire. The revolutionary wave even reached German army units stationed in occupied Allied territories: in
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
, Count Andlau-Hombourg, a nobleman from Alsace, was elected head of the Council of Alsatians-Lorrainers within General von Mackensen’s army group occupying
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
. From 7 November, monarchic power collapsed across the federal states of Germany. On 9 November, the revolution reached
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
and
Emperor Wilhelm II Wilhelm II (Friedrich Wilhelm Viktor Albert; 27 January 18594 June 1941) was the last German Emperor and King of Prussia from 1888 until his abdication in 1918, which marked the end of the German Empire as well as the Hohenzollern dynasty's ...
was forced to
abdicate Abdication is the act of formally relinquishing monarchical authority. Abdications have played various roles in the succession procedures of monarchies. While some cultures have viewed abdication as an extreme abandonment of duty, in other soci ...
, and the Republic of Germany was proclaimed. That same day, councils were formed in Alsace-Lorraine, driven by revolutionary sailors returning from Kiel and
Wilhelmshaven Wilhelmshaven (, ''Wilhelm's Harbour''; Northern Low Saxon: ''Willemshaven'') is a coastal town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the western side of the Jade Bight, a bay of the North Sea, and has a population of 76,089. Wilhelmsha ...
: alongside soldiers’ councils (Soldatenräte), workers’ councils (Arbeiterräte) were also created, or both together as Workers' and Soldiers' Councils, sometimes in the context of revolutionary strikes, particularly in Moselle Lorraine. The German word ''Räte'' for "councils" is a literal translation of "''soviets''". In
Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...
, a group of sailors arrived on 8 November, having travelled by train via
Osnabrück Osnabrück (; ; archaic English: ''Osnaburg'') is a city in Lower Saxony in western Germany. It is situated on the river Hase in a valley penned between the Wiehen Hills and the northern tip of the Teutoburg Forest. With a population of 168 ...
and
Cologne Cologne ( ; ; ) is the largest city of the States of Germany, German state of North Rhine-Westphalia and the List of cities in Germany by population, fourth-most populous city of Germany with nearly 1.1 million inhabitants in the city pr ...
. Since the previous evening, around fifty Bavarian soldiers had been in the barracks, displaying red cloths on their rifles following the abolition of the Bavarian monarchy. The mutineers freed imprisoned soldiers from the military jails of Metz and then marched to the town hall, which they adorned with a red flag hastily made from an
Ottoman flag The Ottoman Empire used various flags and naval ensigns during its history. The crescent and star came into use in the second half of the 18th century. A ' (decree) from 1793 required that the ships of the Ottoman Navy were to use a red flag with ...
, its
crescent and star The conjoined representation of a Star (heraldry), star and a crescent is used in various historical contexts, including as a prominent symbol of the Ottoman Empire, and in contemporary times, as a national symbol by some countries, and by some ...
covered with red lead paint. Local social-democratic trade unionists set up a revolutionary council led by Hans-Heinrich Voortmann, a
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
locksmith and non-commissioned officer from Strasbourg. General Arnold Lequis, the military governor of Metz, submitted to the council. The German civilian administration also collapsed: Karl von Gemmingen-Hornberg, the district president of Lorraine, saw his authority swept aside. The municipal government of Metz and Mayor Roger Forêt chose to cooperate with the revolutionary councils, jointly issuing a call for calm on 9 November. Disorder was limited to a few lootings of food shops and some officers roughed up and stripped of their insignia. Statues of members of the Hohenzollern dynasty and other monarchic emblems throughout the city were, however, left untouched by the insurgents. Workers’ and soldiers’ councils also emerged on the same day in
Forbach Forbach ( , , ; ) is a commune in the French department of Moselle, northeastern French region of Grand Est. It is located on the German border approximately 15 minutes from the center of Saarbrücken, Germany, with which it constitutes a ...
, Hombourg,
Saint-Avold Saint-Avold (; ; Lorraine Franconian: ''Sänt Avuur'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is situated east of Metz, France and southwest of Saarbrücken, Germany. History The Saint-Avold area ha ...
,
Sarrebourg Sarrebourg (; also , ; Lorraine Franconian: ; older ) is a commune of northeastern France. In 1895 a Mithraeum was discovered at Sarrebourg at the mouth of the pass leading from the Vosges Mountains. Geography Sarrebourg is located in the ...
, and
Sarreguemines Sarreguemines (; German: ''Saargemünd'' ; Lorraine Franconian: ''Saargemìnn'') is a commune in the Moselle department of the Grand Est administrative region in north-eastern France. It is the seat of an arrondissement and a canton. As o ...
. The insurrectional wave also reached
Algrange Algrange (; Lorraine Franconian: ''Oolgréngen'' or ''Algréngen''; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments of France, department in Grand Est in northeastern France. They have an association football ...
, Hagondange,
Hayange Hayange (; ; Lorraine Franconian: ''Héngen''/''Haiéngen'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Outlying villages include Marspich and Saint-Nicolas-en-Forêt, Konacker and Ranguevaux. History Archa ...
, Knutange,
Montigny-lès-Metz Montigny-lès-Metz (, literally ''Montigny near Metz''; , (1940–1944) ''Montenich'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is the largest suburb of the city of Metz, and is adjacent to it on the we ...
,
Petite-Rosselle Petite-Rosselle (, , in contrast to " Big Rosselle"; ; Palatine German: ''Klänrossle'') is a commune in the Moselle department of the Grand Est region in north-eastern France. The commune is separated from neighbouring Großrosseln to its we ...
,
Rombas Rombas (; ; Lorrain: ''Rombéch'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Geography Rombas is located in the lower Orne Valley, near Metz and Thionville. History * The first human settlements date back t ...
,
Sarralbe Sarralbe (; ; Lorraine Franconian: ''Alwe'' or ''Saaralwe'') is a commune in the Moselle department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. Population See also * Communes of the Moselle department The following is a list of the 725 commune ...
, Stiring-Wendel, and
Thionville Thionville (; ; ) is a city in the northeastern French Departments of France, department of Moselle (department), Moselle. The city is located on the left bank of the river Moselle (river), Moselle, opposite its suburb Yutz. History Thionvi ...
.


Proclamation of the Republic in Strasbourg

In
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
, the arrival of Communist revolutionary sailors was announced by telegram on the morning of 9 November. A first group of mutineers from the Baltic Sea arrived that day via
Wissembourg Wissembourg (; South Franconian: ''Weisseburch'' ; German: ''Weißenburg'' ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in northeastern France. Wissembourg was a sub-prefecture of the department until 2015. The name ''Wissembourg'' ...
, while another group was temporarily delayed at the
Kehl Kehl (; ) is a city with around 38,000 inhabitants in the southwestern Germany, German state of Baden-Württemberg. It lies in the region of Baden on the Rhine River, at the confluence with the smaller Kinzig (Rhine), Kinzig River, directly oppo ...
bridge. During the following night, a soldiers’ council was formed at Strasbourg train station. Another movement was also developing among military government workers, led by Johannes Rebholz, who was a
USPD The Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany (, USPD) was a short-lived political party in Germany during the German Empire and the Weimar Republic. The organization was established in 1917 as the result of a split of anti-war members of t ...
member and the secretary of a brewers’ union. He was originally from
Sigmaringen Sigmaringen ( Swabian: ''Semmerenga'') is a town in southern Germany, in the state of Baden-Württemberg. Situated on the upper Danube, it is the capital of the Sigmaringen district. Sigmaringen is renowned for its castle, Schloss Sigmaringen, ...
, then relocated to Strasbourg in
1910 Events January * January 6 – Abé people in the French West Africa colony of Côte d'Ivoire rise against the colonial administration; the rebellion is brutally suppressed by the military. * January 8 – By the Treaty of Punakha, t ...
, where he worked as a brewer and became actively involved in
trade union A trade union (British English) or labor union (American English), often simply referred to as a union, is an organization of workers whose purpose is to maintain or improve the conditions of their employment, such as attaining better wages ...
activities. In
1917 Events Below, the events of World War I have the "WWI" prefix. January * January 9 – WWI – Battle of Rafa: The last substantial Ottoman Army garrison on the Sinai Peninsula is captured by the Egyptian Expeditionary Force's ...
, amid the political upheavals of WWI, he joined the USPD, aligning himself with many other revolutionary social democrats who opposed the war and the MSPD’s support for it. A revolutionary council was set up by Bernard Böhle, a Majority Social Democratic MP from Strasbourg, with the support of Lieutenant-Colonel von Holleben, the chief of staff of the military government. The uprising spread to other garrisons and towns in Alsace. In
Haguenau Haguenau (; or ; ; historical ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Bas-Rhin Département in France, department of France, of which it is a Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture. It is second in size in the Bas-Rhin only to Strasbourg ...
, the group of sailors from
Wissembourg Wissembourg (; South Franconian: ''Weisseburch'' ; German: ''Weißenburg'' ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in northeastern France. Wissembourg was a sub-prefecture of the department until 2015. The name ''Wissembourg'' ...
created a soldiers’ council on the evening of 9 November. In
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
and
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
, councils were set up the same evening or the following morning. In these cities, the local workers’ movement actively supported the sailors. On the morning of 10 November, in the various barracks of
Saverne Saverne (, ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ; ) is a communes of France, commune in the Bas-Rhin departments of France, department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It is situated on the Rhine-Marne canal at the foot of a mountain pass, pass ...
, soldiers refused to obey their officers and formed a council. The revolutionaries of
Sélestat Sélestat (; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Schlettstàdt''; German: ''Schlettstadt'') is a Communes of France, commune in the Grand Est region of France. An administrative division (Subprefectures in France, sous-préfecture) of the Bas-Rhin Depa ...
wore red armbands as a badge of recognition and set their first objective as maintaining discipline within the units. In
Guebwiller Guebwiller (; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Gàwiller'' ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Haut-Rhin Departments of France, département in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It was a Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture of the de ...
, the election of the soldiers’ council was preceded by a large demonstration, led by a red flag, with local trade union leaders in attendance. Soldiers from Bergholtz,
Issenheim Issenheim (; ) is a commune in the Haut-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. The Isenheim Altarpiece, currently on display at the Unterlinden Museum of Colmar, was completed in 1515 by Matthias Grünewald for the Antonines m ...
, and Soultz also took part. The soldiers’ councils replaced the old military hierarchy. In less than two days, Alsace was covered in a network of workers' and soldiers’ councils, and the Alsatian population watched as troops returned home carrying red flags and wearing red cockades. These troops were led by ordinary soldiers, while their officers marched beside them, stripped of their ranks and unarmed. The train carried the revolution from one barracks to another throughout Alsace. Revolutionary councils also appeared in
Bischwiller Bischwiller (; ; ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in northeastern France, just west of the river Moder. Geography The city is southeast of Haguenau, west-northwest of the German border and the Rhine (Rhin), and lies ...
,
Erstein Erstein (, ; ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department, in the region of Grand Est, France. History An important necropolis from the Merovingian era (6th-7th century) has been excavated near Erstein in 1999–2000. Erstein was known in Alsa ...
,
Molsheim Molsheim (; ) is a Communes of France, commune and a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bas-Rhin Departments of France, department in Grand Est in north-eastern France.Mutzig Mutzig ( or ; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Bas-Rhin Departments of France, department in Grand Est, in north-eastern France. The commune of Mutzig is located at the entrance of the Bruche (river), Bruche river valley, on the Route d ...
,
Neuf-Brisach Neuf-Brisach ( or , ; , , in contrast to " Old Breisach"; ) is a fortified town and commune of the department of Haut-Rhin in the French region of Alsace. The fortified town was intended to guard the border between France and the Holy Roman E ...
,
Ribeauvillé Ribeauvillé ( is the French name of Ràppschwihr (), a commune in the Haut-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. It was a sub-prefecture of the department until 2015. Geography The town is located around north of Colmar a ...
, Saint-Louis, and
Schiltigheim Schiltigheim (, ; Alsatian: ''Schelige'' ; ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. The inhabitants are called ''Schilikois'' in French and ''Scheligemer'' in Alsatian. It is the largest suburb of the ...
. The councils’ primary aim was to maintain order and prevent looting. In total, the region saw the creation of thirty revolutionary councils: fifteen in Alsace, and fifteen in Moselle Lorraine.


The National Council of Alsace-Lorraine

Within the councils, there were incontestable German
nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
positions, defended by officers and many soldiers originating from various regions of Germany, as well as by some activists aligned with the Majority Social Democracy and others with the Independent Social Democracy or even
Communism Communism () is a political sociology, sociopolitical, political philosophy, philosophical, and economic ideology, economic ideology within the history of socialism, socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a ...
. Due to it was a part of the German proletarian socialist revolution, the uprising in Alsace-Lorraine was judged to be
Germanophile A Germanophile, Teutonophile, or Teutophile is a person who is fond of Culture of Germany, German culture, Germans, German people and Germany in general, or who exhibits German patriotism in spite of not being either an ethnic German or a German ...
or even perceived as a manoeuvre favouring the neutralist project. In Strasbourg, during the night of 9 to 10 November, the pro-bourgeois MSPD deputy and city
councillor A councillor, alternatively councilman, councilwoman, councilperson, or council member, is someone who sits on, votes in, or is a member of, a council. This is typically an elected representative of an electoral district in a municipal or re ...
Jacques Peirotes Jacques Laurent Peirotes (11 September 1869 Strasbourg – 4 September 1935) was a French and German politician, mayor of Strasbourg from 1919 to 1929. Biography The young Jacques Peirotes, son of a carpenter working at the locomotives factor ...
proclaimed himself
mayor In many countries, a mayor is the highest-ranking official in a Municipal corporation, municipal government such as that of a city or a town. Worldwide, there is a wide variance in local laws and customs regarding the powers and responsibilitie ...
, filling the post left vacant by
Rudolf Schwander Rudolf Schwander (23 December 1868 – 25 December 1950) was a German politician and social reformer. He was, among other things, the Mayor of Strasbourg and High Commissioner of Hesse-Nassau. Life Born in Alsace (which was then French, b ...
. His goal was to lessen the grip of the mass revolutionary forces on the city and sabotage the proletarian movements in Alsace-Lorraine to restore the dictatorship of bourgeoisie by hook or by crook, just like what the MSPD did in other parts of Germany in those days. The next morning, the
municipal council A municipal council is the legislative body of a municipality or local government area. Depending on the location and classification of the municipality it may be known as a city council, town council, town board, community council, borough cou ...
unanimously confirmed him in office. To counterbalance the influence of the soldiers’ council. Laurent Meyer, president of the Woodworkers’ Union and MSPD elected to the Landtag, formed a workers’ council alongside Charles Riehl, founder of the Strasbourg Consumers’ Cooperative Society, and Gustave Schulenburg, head of the Metalworkers’ Union. As the revolutionary movement spread into the factories, workers’ councils also emerged in
Colmar Colmar (; ; or ) is a city and commune in the Haut-Rhin department and Alsace region of north-eastern France. The third-largest commune in Alsace (after Strasbourg and Mulhouse), it is the seat of the prefecture of the Haut-Rhin department ...
,
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
and
Schiltigheim Schiltigheim (, ; Alsatian: ''Schelige'' ; ) is a commune in the Bas-Rhin department in Grand Est in north-eastern France. The inhabitants are called ''Schilikois'' in French and ''Scheligemer'' in Alsatian. It is the largest suburb of the ...
in the days that followed. On the morning of 10 November, Strasbourg’s town hall was occupied, while a crowd gathered on
Place Kléber The Place Kléber (''Kleberplatz'' in German) is the central square of Strasbourg, France. As the largest square at the center of Strasbourg, in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after French revolutionary general Jean-Ba ...
and the soldiers’ council convened. In front of the guard post at the Aubette, the "Republic" was proclaimed. Also present was Johannes Rebholz, newly elected head of the soldiers’ council, who declared that "the old regime has been overthrown and the people have taken the government into their own hands", and that "from now on, power lies in the hands of the proletariats". Rushing to the statue of General Kléber in the same square, Jacques Peirotes responded by also proclaiming a "social republic" without further clarification. As a
Francophile A Francophile is a person who has a strong affinity towards any or all of the French language, History of France, French history, Culture of France, French culture and/or French people. That affinity may include France itself or its history, lang ...
, the new mayor of Strasbourg may have been alluding to the French Republic without naming it outright. He had already publicly expressed, on several occasions, his desire for Alsace-Lorraine to be returned to France. By midday, Peirotes, Meyer and Rebholz issued a joint call for calm, asking the population to follow the instructions of the councils and announcing the formation of a civic guard to maintain order. In agreement with the soldiers’ council, which was meeting at the Palais de Justice, Peirotes summoned the delegates of the workers’ and soldiers’ councils to elect a thirteen-member executive committee. Among them were Charles Frey and Victor Antoni, whose goal was to keep the unrest in check. Also on the committee was the German captain Erik Reinartz, who instead sought to radicalise the movement and co-opt it towards the neutralist project. The committee was chaired by Rebholz, who acted as a moderating force among its members. The executive council prioritised freedom of speech and the release of political prisoners. The workers’ and soldiers’ councils occupied all official buildings in Strasbourg, including the ministries of Alsace-Lorraine located on today’s
Place de la République The Place de la République (; English: Republic Square; known until 1879 as the Place du Château d'Eau, ) is a square in Paris, located on the border between the 3rd, 10th and 11th arrondissements. The square has an area of .Warner, p. 250 ...
, still called ''Kaiserplatz'' at the time. Official portraits of German sovereigns were taken down from the city’s various administrative and judicial buildings. At the '' Palais de Justice'', the bust of the German Emperor was replaced by one of
Karl Marx Karl Marx (; 5 May 1818 – 14 March 1883) was a German philosopher, political theorist, economist, journalist, and revolutionary socialist. He is best-known for the 1848 pamphlet '' The Communist Manifesto'' (written with Friedrich Engels) ...
. By the evening of 10 November, two political powers were in control of Strasbourg: the executive committee of workers’ and soldiers’ councils and the bourgeois municipal council, both meeting in permanent session. A civic guard was established, not without difficulty, under a magistrate-turned-chief of police, Jules Lévy, to counteract the armed and extremist bands loyal to Captain Reinartz. As early as 9 November 1918, the day Emperor Wilhelm II abdicated, around ten deputies from the ''
Landtag A ''Landtag'' (State Diet) is generally the legislative assembly or parliament of a federated state or other subnational self-governing entity in German-speaking nations. It is usually a unicameral assembly exercising legislative competence ...
'' of Alsace-Lorraine sought to transform their regional assembly into a
sovereign ''Sovereign'' is a title that can be applied to the highest leader in various categories. The word is borrowed from Old French , which is ultimately derived from the Latin">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to ...
"National Council" to fill the institutional vacuum left by the collapse of the German monarchy. The group of elected representatives gathered in Strasbourg around deputy Auguste Labroise to decide on convening the Second Chamber of the Landtag for 12 November—bringing forward the official session originally scheduled for the following day. This body was formed at the initiative of local notables, backed by the great majority of the population. Parallel to the proclamation of an independent republic by the parliament of the ''Reichsland'', a soldiers’ council also proclaimed the republic—similar to
Karl Liebknecht Karl Paul August Friedrich Liebknecht (; ; 13 August 1871 – 15 January 1919) was a German politician and revolutionary socialist. A leader of the far-left wing of the Social Democratic Party of Germany (SPD), Liebknecht was a co-founder of both ...
's in
Berlin Berlin ( ; ) is the Capital of Germany, capital and largest city of Germany, by both area and List of cities in Germany by population, population. With 3.7 million inhabitants, it has the List of cities in the European Union by population withi ...
. However, MSPD forces prevailed and thwarted the attempt to establish a council republic (''Räterepublik''). The revolutionary events unfolding in Strasbourg hastened the process: the Landtag was thus convened on 11 November at the Palace of the Diet of Alsace-Lorraine. Inspired by the examples of national councils formed in
Czechoslovakia Czechoslovakia ( ; Czech language, Czech and , ''Česko-Slovensko'') was a landlocked country in Central Europe, created in 1918, when it declared its independence from Austria-Hungary. In 1938, after the Munich Agreement, the Sudetenland beca ...
,
Poland Poland, officially the Republic of Poland, is a country in Central Europe. It extends from the Baltic Sea in the north to the Sudetes and Carpathian Mountains in the south, bordered by Lithuania and Russia to the northeast, Belarus and Ukrai ...
, and
Bukovina Bukovina or ; ; ; ; , ; see also other languages. is a historical region at the crossroads of Central and Eastern Europe. It is located on the northern slopes of the central Eastern Carpathians and the adjoining plains, today divided betwe ...
following the collapse of
the Dual Monarchy Austria-Hungary, also referred to as the Austro-Hungarian Empire, the Dual Monarchy or the Habsburg Monarchy, was a multi-national constitutional monarchy in Central Europe#Before World War I, Central Europe between 1867 and 1918. A military ...
, the Alsatian and Lorraine deputies proclaimed themselves the "National Council of Alsace-Lorraine" (Nationalrat), led by Eugène Ricklin. Claiming to be the legitimate bearer of sovereignty, this council of notables resolved to sit in permanent session—alongside
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
’s two other centres of power: the bourgeois municipal council and the workers’ and soldiers’ council—given the seriousness of the situation. The National Council was recognised beyond Alsace-Lorraine by the Council of the People’s Deputies, Council of People’s Deputies in Berlin (the official government of the Reich) and even received congratulations from ''Chancellor of Germany, Reichskanzler'' Friedrich Ebert. In Strasbourg, the MSPD Eugène Imbs and Laurent Meyer, members of both the commission and the Executive Committee of the workers’ and soldiers’ councils, were tasked with maintaining communication between the new body and their own organisation. Following the resignation of Schwander and the Hauss government, an administrative commission (Verwaltungsausschuß) was established to handle day-to-day affairs. This commission instructed Civil service, civil servants to remain in their posts to ensure continuity of administration during the political transition. It continued to organise supplies, oversee the return of refugees, and manage the Demobilization, demobilisation of Alsatian-Lorraine soldiers. It also negotiated a swift end to the railway workers’ strike. However, the notables had to contend with the workers’ and soldiers’ councils. While the MSPD led National Council initially intended to proclaim Alsace-Lorraine’s annexation to France on 13 November, it was forced to postpone this declaration due to threats from Captain Reinartz.


The Revolutionary Radicalisation

The defeat and demobilisation of German troops in the region prompted many soldiers to converge on Strasbourg-Ville station, Strasbourg station in the hope of finding a train to cross Germany and return to their hometowns. Such a large concentration of soldiers in the city became problematic, as it strained Military supply-chain management, supplies and made it difficult to maintain order. Despite various appeals from the different councils of different classes, calm was not restored. Military stores were looted, and the soldiers’ council opened fire on the looters. A poster condemned the trafficking of military goods and threatened anyone caught in the act with imprisonment and the confiscation of their property. Under pressure from Captain Reinartz and the soldiers’ councils, the revolutionary movement got radicalised. The new slogan was: "''Neither German, nor French, nor neutral. Long Live the Revolutionary socialism, International Social Democracy.''" As president of the Executive Committee of German workers’ and soldiers’ councils 1918–1919, Workers’ and Soldiers’ Councils, Majority Social Democratic Party of Germany, Government Socialist Johann Rebholz acted as a moderating voice in the debates among Independent Social Democratic Party of Germany, revolutionaries in Strasbourg. Already questioned on 10 November about banning Red flag (politics), the red flag, Rebholz responded: "We must deal with the existing balance of power, and everyone should be free to fly the flag of their choice." At first, he opposed raising the red flag: "The red flag would only frighten the Alsatian population." Nevertheless, despite the position of the MSPD, the red flag was accepted as a minimum point of agreement between factions, symbolising "the collapse of German power." Faced with mounting concern, Peirotes declared: "If the red flag is raised on the cathedral, it’s because those who did it are stronger than us. Against that, we can do nothing." It was in this context that the revolutionary red flag was fastened by a daring climber to the spire of Strasbourg Cathedral at around 15 O'clock on 12 November. At the head of the sailors from
Wilhelmshaven Wilhelmshaven (, ''Wilhelm's Harbour''; Northern Low Saxon: ''Willemshaven'') is a coastal town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the western side of the Jade Bight, a bay of the North Sea, and has a population of 76,089. Wilhelmsha ...
, Wendelin Thomas declared: "That the red flag flies over the cathedral is a sign that socialist theory has ceased to be a theory and become a reality… A new era has begun, that of entering the era of humanity… The ultimate aim is the civilising mission, the brotherhood of workers." However, the red flags were forced to be removed few days later after the entrance of Imperialism, French imperialist forces in Alsace-Lorraine. The MSPD led National Council’s plan to declare Alsace-Lorraine’s attachment to France on 13 November prompted an immediate reaction from German nationalism, the pro-German nationalist faction within German workers’ and soldiers’ councils 1918–1919, the soldiers’ council, led by Captain Reinartz. Part of the group wanted to arrest members of the Bourgeois National Council and establish a revolutionary regime to resist French Army in World War I, the French imperialist army, which was approaching Strasbourg. Reinartz and two of his colleagues went to the Palais de la diète. Greeted by Eugène Imbs, François Hoën, and
Jacques Peirotes Jacques Laurent Peirotes (11 September 1869 Strasbourg – 4 September 1935) was a French and German politician, mayor of Strasbourg from 1919 to 1929. Biography The young Jacques Peirotes, son of a carpenter working at the locomotives factor ...
, the representatives of the soldiers’ council declared that they could not accept the existence of a Francophile, francophile dominated Bourgeois National Council. The revolutionaries claimed to have "5,000 undefeated German soldiers, armed to the teeth, equipped with machine guns and hand grenades […] If the National Council wants to avoid a bloodbath, it must remove these emblems so as not to provoke the soldiers."The National Council yielded without submitting to the soldiers’ council’s authority: the deputies agreed to delay any declaration in favour of France and to refrain from displaying the Flag of France, tricolour in order to calm the situation. Following the first group of sailors who had arrived from northern German ports a few days earlier, a second contingent left
Wilhelmshaven Wilhelmshaven (, ''Wilhelm's Harbour''; Northern Low Saxon: ''Willemshaven'') is a coastal town in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated on the western side of the Jade Bight, a bay of the North Sea, and has a population of 76,089. Wilhelmsha ...
on 13 November and reached
Strasbourg Strasbourg ( , ; ; ) is the Prefectures in France, prefecture and largest city of the Grand Est Regions of France, region of Geography of France, eastern France, in the historic region of Alsace. It is the prefecture of the Bas-Rhin Departmen ...
the following day to influence the revolutionary movement in the city.


The End of the Revolutionary Movement


The Arrival of French Troops

Across Alsace-Lorraine, the workers’ and soldiers’ councils dissolved themselves automatically following the withdrawal of German troops between 11 and 17 November 1918, as stipulated by Armistice of 11 November 1918, the armistice agreements. The Executive Committee of the Strasbourg German workers’ and soldiers’ councils 1918–1919, councils continued to sit until 20 November, the date on which Red flag (politics), the red flag was removed from the Strasbourg Cathedral, cathedral at the request of the Social Democratic Party of Germany, Majority Social Democratic deputy
Jacques Peirotes Jacques Laurent Peirotes (11 September 1869 Strasbourg – 4 September 1935) was a French and German politician, mayor of Strasbourg from 1919 to 1929. Biography The young Jacques Peirotes, son of a carpenter working at the locomotives factor ...
. Several days passed between the signing of the armistice and the arrival of French troops in the various towns of Alsace-Lorraine. The armies of the Triple Entente, Entente crossed the former Front (military), front line and advanced through the region more rapidly than anticipated, due to fears of Revolutions of 1917–1923, revolutionary contagion. French soldiers entered the towns between 16 and 22 November 1918. In Moselle (department), Moselle Lorraine, the advance of the troops commanded by Émile Fayolle, General Émile Fayolle was slowed by the gradual retreat of the German army, and on 20 November reached the line between Völklingen, Saarbrücken and
Sarreguemines Sarreguemines (; German: ''Saargemünd'' ; Lorraine Franconian: ''Saargemìnn'') is a commune in the Moselle department of the Grand Est administrative region in north-eastern France. It is the seat of an arrondissement and a canton. As o ...
. In
Metz Metz ( , , , then ) is a city in northeast France located at the confluence of the Moselle (river), Moselle and the Seille (Moselle), Seille rivers. Metz is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Moselle (department), Moselle Departments ...
, a welcoming committee was formed around Francophile, francophile figures opposed to the German authorities. German workers’ and soldiers’ councils 1918–1919, The workers’ and soldiers’ council voluntarily stood down upon the arrival of the French on 15 November. The troops were greeted triumphantly by the section of Francophile, the population in favour of France, who had carefully prepared for their arrival. This popular celebration was partly spontaneous and partly orchestrated, but not universally shared—indeed, a significant portion of the population remained pro-German or favoured Alsace-Lorraine’s neutrality. On 5 December, the MSPD led National Council of Alsace-Lorraine finally voted unanimously in favour of France. Raymond Poincaré, President of the French Republic, and Georges Clemenceau, President of the Council, travelled from
Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...
and were received in the region from 8 to 10 December to prepare for the reintegration of the "lost provinces," pointedly refusing, however, to meet the leaders of the National Council. It was from the Hôtel de Hanau, balcony of Strasbourg’s town hall, before an enthusiastic crowd, that Poincaré delivered a carefully crafted phrase: "The plebiscite is done!"—thus avoiding a Referendum, referendum with an uncertain outcome.


The Public Opinion in Alsace-Lorraine at the End of the War

By the war’s end, Alsatian public opinion—worn down by the conflict and the military dictatorship imposed at the outbreak of hostilities—appeared in favour of France. In his journal, Charles Spindler describes the joy of some of his fellow Alsatians at the distress of German immigrants. On 6 November, he notes that his sister returned from Strasbourg where she had bought Flag of France, tricolour ribbons and paper: "That’s all that’s being sold now, in both German shops and old Alsatian houses." On 8 November, after writing: "Newspapers such as the Neue Zeitung and ''Der Elsässer'' proclaim Alsace’s attachment to France," he adds: "It’s a strange feeling to read in print what until now had only been whispered among friends." Those who did not welcome the return of France with such enthusiasm only dared express it in private, and the population of ''Altdeutscher'' (Old German) origin remained anxiously hidden away in their homes. Gottfried, Prince of Hohenlohe-Langenburg, Prince Alexander of Hohenlohe-Schillingsfürst, former governor of the Colmar, Colmar district (roughly equivalent to a prefect), laments in his memoirs: "How is it […] that the French armies were welcomed as liberators when, following Germany’s collapse in the autumn of 1918, they entered Alsace-Lorraine victorious?" The
Germanophile A Germanophile, Teutonophile, or Teutophile is a person who is fond of Culture of Germany, German culture, Germans, German people and Germany in general, or who exhibits German patriotism in spite of not being either an ethnic German or a German ...
Philippe Husser explains in his diary. On 16 October, after writing: "I leaf through the paper. The news is depressing. Germany has lost the war…", he adds: "Most hope – some fear – that Alsace-Lorraine will soon be French." He attributes this sentiment to the conduct of the German army in Alsace: "What is unforgivable is having treated Alsace as enemy territory. Who is to blame for the sympathy towards Germany—which was undeniable in Alsace-Lorraine at first—being turned into its opposite during the war, if not the military authorities’ lack of consideration?" The results of this behaviour appear in lines written by
Statthalter In the Low Countries, a stadtholder ( ) was a steward, first appointed as a medieval official and ultimately functioning as a national leader. The ''stadtholder'' was the replacement of the duke or count of a province during the Burgundian and ...
Johann von Dallwitz dated 25 February 1918: "Sympathies for France and aversion to Germans have reached a frightening depth among Petite bourgeoisie, the petty bourgeoisie and Peasant, peasant circles." On 2 November we read: "In the cities, joy predominates at the prospect of becoming French. Various reservations are also expressed, particularly in the countryside. Reason is not ready to rush in blindly after the impulses of the heart." The jubilation of Alsatians and Lorrainers favouring the arrival of France was mirrored by the dejection of Germans, who were all the more dismayed by how quickly events unfolded. Everyone tried to cope as best they could, and on 6 November, Philippe Husser writes: "Families of German origin are packing up and preparing to leave." But moving to Stuttgart cost 3,000 Deutsche Mark, marks! Others tried to pass themselves off as Alsatians or Lorrainers, only to be told that cats don’t give birth to dogs: "Imagine that my cat just gave birth in the kennel; and—believe it or not—they are kittens." The Prussian head forest ranger of Lascaux, Corrèze, Lassaux spoke of his French ancestry. The administrator of Obernai got engaged to an Alsatian woman ten years older than himself. In extremis, the German government tried to retain the Reichsland by granting it what had always been denied: autonomy and equality with the other German states. On 14 October, it appointed
Statthalter In the Low Countries, a stadtholder ( ) was a steward, first appointed as a medieval official and ultimately functioning as a national leader. The ''stadtholder'' was the replacement of the duke or count of a province during the Burgundian and ...
Rudolf Schwander Rudolf Schwander (23 December 1868 – 25 December 1950) was a German politician and social reformer. He was, among other things, the Mayor of Strasbourg and High Commissioner of Hesse-Nassau. Life Born in Alsace (which was then French, b ...
, assisted by Chancellor of Germany, Staatssekretär Karl Hauss; with one Protestant and one Catholic, they hoped to soothe religious sensitivities. But this appointment infuriated Eugène Ricklin, "the Lion of
Sundgau Sundgau ( or ; ) is a geographical territory in the southern Alsace region (Haut Rhin and Territoire de Belfort, Belfort), on the eastern edge of France. The name is derived from Alemannic German ''Sunt-Gau (territory), gowe'' ("South shire"), den ...
," who already saw himself in the role: he therefore played the Anti-German sentiment, anti-German card and declared the new autonomy status outdated. Naively, he believed that the future status of Alsace-Lorraine would be debated at Paris Peace Conference (1919–1920), the peace conference, where he could play his part. Kiel mutiny, The Kiel revolt broke out on 3 November, but the movement took time to reach Alsace-Lorraine. When Strasbourg erupted on 7 November, it was to the cries of "Vive la France!" The statue of Jean-Baptiste Kléber, Kléber was draped in Flag of France, the tricolour, and the windows of the house where the emperor’s last son resided were smashed. At this stage, it was still civilian intrigue. On 3 November, six Alsatians, members of the Alsatian Bund, sent a telegram to Woodrow Wilson, President Wilson requesting the right of peoples to Self-determination, self-determination be granted to Alsace–Lorraine, Alsace-Lorraine. Meanwhile, Father Sigwalt, the priest of Rountzenheim, was campaigning for a neutral Republic of Alsace-Lorraine, but on 6 November he added a rather clumsy article in ''Der Elsässer'', reminding readers that "A Catholic people cannot accommodate an Soviet republic, atheist state," which served only to alert Protestants that an independent Alsace-Lorraine risked being dominated by the rival faith. On 10 November, with the arrival of sailors from Kiel, a "Soviet republic, Republic of Councils" was proclaimed; there were now two governments, insofar as the Schwander–Hauss team still held nominal authority and the various workers’ and soldiers’ councils springing up across Alsace-Lorraine could be considered a unified front—even though two councils sometimes shared the same city. To add to the confusion, Professor Wurtz had planned to convene a committee at the Sangerhausen, Sängerhaus on 11 November, bringing together prominent Alsace-Lorraine figures to seize power and proclaim independence. But the attempt failed. The ''Landtag'', transformed into the National Council after absorbing Alsace-Lorraine deputies from the Reichstag, overthrew Schwander, replacing him—briefly—with Eugène Ricklin, before Canon Delsor took over. No one knew who governed anymore, especially once the revolution broke out and the Republic of Councils was proclaimed. This proclamation seemed hardly serious to some Alsatians-Lorrainers. On 10 November, Spindler describes a soldier bursting into the Strasbourg hotel where he was staying and ordering officers to remove their Insignia, insignia. Spindler comments: "It seemed so unserious that Mme Noth and I laughed about it." It was a Sunday, and he observed: "Most people were peacefully attending Church service, church services, as if there were no German revolution of 1918–1919, revolution at all." He watched the proclamation of the new government in
Place Kléber The Place Kléber (''Kleberplatz'' in German) is the central square of Strasbourg, France. As the largest square at the center of Strasbourg, in the heart of the city's commercial area, it was named after French revolutionary general Jean-Ba ...
and called it "a farce." Meanwhile, children were throwing red, white, and blue streamers on the Jean-Baptiste Kléber, Kléber statue. Soldiers "tried to look bold, but the public didn’t take them seriously." When he went to the train station to buy a ticket, a soldier tried to enforce an order: "The Soldiers’ Council orders you to close your counter. No more travel!" The ticket clerk, ignoring the order, kept issuing tickets with a shrug. The Alsatians, knowing that the French were already on the way, saw this revolution as a masquerade—one last stupidity to add to many others. So the soldier backed off, afraid of reprisals. Spindler returned home and wrote: "News of the revolution has already reached Bœrsch, Boersch with more or less fanciful details: little importance is attached to it, and it is seen as a wikt:Machiavellian, Machiavellian manoeuvre intended to evade the armistice." In
Mulhouse Mulhouse (; ; Alsatian language, Alsatian: ''Mìlhüsa'' ; , meaning "Mill (grinding), mill house") is a France, French city of the European Collectivity of Alsace (Haut-Rhin department, in the Grand Est region of France). It is near the Fran ...
, Husser describes an explosion of Cockade of France, tricolour cockades: "Even people who otherwise appear quite serious are wearing them." A "military council," he notes, ordered soldiers to remove them by force if necessary; it’s unclear how successful this was. In any case, the council could not prevent protests outside the homes of unpopular individuals, "among others, teachers who became hated for denunciations," or even physical assaults: "Apparently, Dr. Wegelin was attacked. By issuing military fitness certificates without leniency, he made fierce enemies." The military council appeared to cooperate with the municipal council to issue calls for calm. A civilian militia was formed to maintain order, but a delegation was sent to the French camp to ask that French troops arrive as soon as possible to prevent disorder after the departure of German troops. According to Spindler, the communist revolution of 10 November was merely a comedy aimed at keeping Alsace-Lorraine in the Reich—even if they were unaware of Paul von Hindenburg, Hindenburg’s secret telegrams instructing all military leaders to agree with the soldiers’ councils at all costs, and, if needed, to provoke their formation. For a long time, this episode held little interest for historians. As late as 1968, Robert Heitz observed the lack of publications on the subject, while Pierri Zind, an independentist historian, focuses far less on the confused episodes involving workers’ and soldiers’ councils, preferring instead to dwell on the parliamentary manoeuvrings of the Landtag, whose failure he laments.


The Resolution of Alsace-Lorraine Question

Contrary to the hopes of the leaders of the former ''Reichsland'' of Alsace-Lorraine, who had placed their trust in Woodrow Wilson, President Wilson’s promises, the territory would not benefit from the new right of peoples to Self-determination, self-determination. Instead, it was forcibly annexed to France under the Treaty of Versailles, Treaty of Versailles without any consultation of the population — a decision that would sow deep resentment. Alsace–Lorraine, Alsace, along with the Lorraine district, was ceded to France under a Local law in Alsace–Moselle, special legal regime. The territory was divided into three departments: •
Moselle The Moselle ( , ; ; ) is a river that rises in the Vosges mountains and flows through north-eastern France and Luxembourg to western Germany. It is a bank (geography), left bank tributary of the Rhine, which it joins at Koblenz. A sm ...
, encompassing the Lorraine territories (excluding the Vosges) that had been lost in 1871; •
Haut-Rhin Haut-Rhin (); Alsatian: ''Owerelsàss'' or '; , . is a department in the Grand Est region, France, bordering both Germany and Switzerland. It is named after the river Rhine; its name means Upper Rhine. Haut-Rhin is the smaller and less pop ...
; •
Bas-Rhin Bas-Rhin () is a department in Alsace which is a part of the Grand Est region of France. The name means 'Lower Rhine', referring to its lower altitude among the two French Rhine departments: it is downstream of the Haut-Rhin (Upper Rhine) de ...
, which retained the cantons of Schirmeck and Saales, despite these having originally belonged to the
Vosges The Vosges ( , ; ; Franconian and ) is a range of medium mountains in Eastern France, near its border with Germany. Together with the Palatine Forest to the north on the German side of the border, they form a single geomorphological unit and ...
before the application of Treaty of Frankfurt (1871), the 1871 Treaty of Frankfurt. As these cantons of Schirmeck and Saales remained part of the Bas-Rhin (specifically, the Arrondissement of Molsheim, arrondissement of Molsheim), the department of the Vosges remained amputated of the upper Bruche valley, lost in 1871. The arrondissement of Belfort, which had been detached from the Haut-Rhin to remain French, was not reunited with its original department either. In 1922, it became a full department under the name Territoire de Belfort. Elsewhere, Meurthe-et-Moselle remained unchanged, maintaining the same departmental boundaries it had had since 1871. From a linguistic perspective, in the territories thus recovered, French replaced German in public services and schools, using a direct method of instruction which abruptly imposed French without transition. This disregard for the predominantly German-speaking population proved traumatic, even for Lorraine Franconian, the Lorraine Franconian and Alsatian dialect, Alsatian-speaking communities who had remained francophile — all the more so given that the Germans had continued to provide French-language instruction in the non-German-speaking parts of the Reichsland, such as the Romance-speaking Moselle and the pays welche. A sorting commission divided the Alsace-Lorraine population into four Citizenship, citizen categories, marked A-B-C-D on identity cards. This classification was based on ancestry and perceived degree of francophilia, with each class enjoying different levels of civic rights. The French authorities implemented a rather harsh purge policy, under which around 200,000 Alsatians or Lorrainers deemed "German" or not sufficiently francophile were abruptly expelled, and their property confiscated. Conversely, Alsatians and Lorrainers whose families had opted for France and emigrated after the 1871 annexation returned to their native regions. Half of the expelled Germans would eventually be allowed to return at the request of United States, the USA. The disconnect between French soldiers and public opinion — who discovered that the Alsace-Lorraine population had been far better integrated into the Reich than the Stereotype, stereotypical propaganda had — along with the haste to incorporate these regions fully into the French Republic (with the exception of Secularism in France, laïcité), the extreme policies of Francization, francisation, and the brutal expulsions, all contributed to the emergence of the "Alsace-Lorraine malaise." This unease would manifest from early 1919 and persist right up to the eve of the World War II, WWII, notably in the high electoral support for autonomist parties during various elections.


Testimonies

Concerning the events of November 1918, here is what Robert Heitz — a contemporary witness — had to say about them half a century later, under the title "An Immense Confusion": "The weeks leading up to the liberation of 22rd November 1918 were marked by immense confusion — crowds on the move, processions, demonstrations, looting, brawls, gunfire, but also secret plots, endless discussions, pretence, and double-dealing: a tangled web that is difficult to unravel. All the more so because none of the main actors in the local tragicomedy that followed the great slaughter left behind a complete account of events." And at the end of the article, he lists seven publications from which he believes something of value can still be drawn. This scarcity of information may seem surprising, but some see the "councils’ revolution" as a desperate attempt by the German authorities to retain Alsace-Lorraine within the Reich — and thus not worth talking about. But even from the most conservative perspective, this point of view is far from the truth, because the monarchist German authorities had already been destroyed by the revolution, and the only functioning German authority was the MSPD dominated government, which was the most deadly foe of the revolutionary council movement, and the movement was, eventually, defeated by the constant crack down of the Ebert–Groener pact, Ebert’s administration across the ''Reich'' in the following two years, so it was literally impossible to imagine a Ebert's government backed council movement would ever exist.


See also

*
Bavarian Soviet Republic The Bavarian Soviet Republic (or Bavarian Council Republic), also known as the Munich Soviet Republic (), was a short-lived unrecognised socialist state in Bavaria during the German revolution of 1918–1919. A group of communists and anarchist ...
* Bremen Soviet Republic *
German Revolution German(s) may refer to: * Germany, the country of the Germans and German things **Germania (Roman era) * Germans, citizens of Germany, people of German ancestry, or native speakers of the German language ** For citizenship in Germany, see also Ge ...
* Republic of Baden * Soviet (council)


References


Sources

*Alfred Döblin, Döblin, A.: ''Bourgeois & soldats (Novembre 1918)'', novel, . In French. Part I of a tetralogy; the whole four books are available in German, . *Eschbach, J.: ''Au Coeur de la Resistance Alsacienne. Le Combat de Paul Dingler'', Bentzinger, 2005. . *Troester, J.: ''22 novembre 1918 : les Français à Strasbourg'', in ''La Grande Guerre Magazine'' 38, April 2003.


External links

*, Historical article about the uprising. {{Socialist states Alsace–Lorraine 1918 in France 1918 in Germany 20th-century revolutions Former countries in Europe, Alsace-Lorraine Communism in France Alsace independence movement Former socialist republics, Alsace-Lorraine German Revolution of 1918–1919 Insurgencies in Europe Early Soviet republics