Roger II tari gold coin Palermo with Arabic inscriptions

The term Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture, Norman–Sicilian culture or, less inclusively, Norman–Arab culture, (sometimes referred to as the "Arab-Norman civilization") refers to the interaction of the

Norman Norman or Normans may refer to: Ethnic and cultural identity * The Normans, a people partly descended from Norse Vikings who settled in the territory of Normandy in France in the 9th and 10th centuries ** People or things connected with the Norma ...

Byzantine Greek Medieval Greek (also known as Middle Greek, Byzantine Greek, or Romaic; Greek: ) is the stage of the Greek language between the end of classical antiquity in the 5th–6th centuries and the end of the Middle Ages, conventionally dated to the F ...

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

, and

Arab Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of years ...

cultures following the

Norman conquest The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Normans, Norman, French people, French, Flemish people, Flemish, and Bretons, Breton troops, all led by the Du ...

of the former

Emirate of Sicily The island of SicilyIn Arabic, the island was known as (). was under Islam, Islamic rule from the late ninth to the late eleventh centuries. It became a prosperous and influential commercial power in the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean, with ...

and

North Africa North Africa (sometimes Northern Africa) is a region encompassing the northern portion of the African continent. There is no singularly accepted scope for the region. However, it is sometimes defined as stretching from the Atlantic shores of t ...

from 1061 to around 1250. The civilization resulted from numerous exchanges in the cultural and scientific fields, based on the tolerance shown by the Normans towards the

- and

Greek Greek may refer to: Anything of, from, or related to Greece, a country in Southern Europe: *Greeks, an ethnic group *Greek language, a branch of the Indo-European language family **Proto-Greek language, the assumed last common ancestor of all kno ...

-speaking

Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...

populations and the former Arab

Muslim Muslims () are people who adhere to Islam, a Monotheism, monotheistic religion belonging to the Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic tradition. They consider the Quran, the foundational religious text of Islam, to be the verbatim word of the God ...

settlers. As a result,

Sicily Sicily (Italian language, Italian and ), officially the Sicilian Region (), is an island in the central Mediterranean Sea, south of the Italian Peninsula in continental Europe and is one of the 20 regions of Italy, regions of Italy. With 4. ...

under the Normans became a crossroad for the interaction between the Norman and Latin

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

, Byzantine–

Orthodox Orthodox, Orthodoxy, or Orthodoxism may refer to: Religion * Orthodoxy, adherence to accepted norms, more specifically adherence to creeds, especially within Christianity and Judaism, but also less commonly in non-Abrahamic religions like Neo-pag ...

, and Arab–

Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...

cultures.

Norman conquest of southern Italy

The first

Normans The Normans (Norman language, Norman: ''Normaunds''; ; ) were a population arising in the medieval Duchy of Normandy from the intermingling between Norsemen, Norse Viking settlers and locals of West Francia. The Norse settlements in West Franc ...

arrived in

Southern Italy Southern Italy (, , or , ; ; ), also known as () or (; ; ; ), is a macroregion of Italy consisting of its southern Regions of Italy, regions. The term "" today mostly refers to the regions that are associated with the people, lands or cultu ...

during the

High Middle Ages The High Middle Ages, or High Medieval Period, was the periodization, period of European history between and ; it was preceded by the Early Middle Ages and followed by the Late Middle Ages, which ended according to historiographical convention ...

, between the years 1000 and 1030. The de Hautevilles had enjoyed a mutually beneficial relationship with the papacy in the period leading up to their arrival in Southern Italy, with the Church recognizing them as legitimate lords in return for their military allegiance. The Normans would seize upon divisions between the Lombards and Byzantines in the region in order to establish a foothold, and they would establish a capital at Aversa in 1030. A defining victory for the Normans would come in 1053, when they defeated a papal force constituted of Lombards and imperial Byzantine forces at Civitella sul Fortore. The battle would see them also capture Pope Leo IX, who had been backing the force opposing them. Robert Guiscard would mount later campaigns after his conquest of Sicily to further Norman influence in Southern Italy, notably capturing Bari in 1071 and Salerno in 1077.

Norman conquest of Sicily

Seventy-three years after the Islamic invasion of Southern Italy, the Byzantine forces began a reconquest of Sicily under the Byzantine general

George Maniakes George Maniakes (; ; died 1043) was a prominent general of the Byzantine Empire during the 11th century. He was the catepan of Italy in 1042. He is known as Gyrgir in Scandinavian sagas. He is popularly said to have been extremely tall and well ...

in 1038. This invasion relied on a number of Norse mercenaries, the

Varangians The Varangians ( ; ; ; , or )Varangian
," Online Etymology Dictionary were

Harald Hardrada Harald Sigurdsson (; – 25 September 1066), also known as Harald III of Norway and given the epithet ''Hardrada'' in the sagas, was List of Norwegian monarchs, King of Norway from 1046 to 1066. He unsuccessfully claimed the Monarchy of Denma ...

, as well as on several contingents of Italo-Norman warriors. Although Maniakes' death in a Byzantine civil war in 1043 cut the invasion short, the Normans followed up on the advances made by the Byzantines and completed the conquest of the former

and

. The Normans had been expanding south, as mercenaries and adventurers, driven by the myth of a happy and sunny island in the Southern Seas. The Norman

Robert Guiscard Robert Guiscard ( , ; – 17 July 1085), also referred to as Robert de Hauteville, was a Normans, Norman adventurer remembered for his Norman conquest of southern Italy, conquest of southern Italy and Sicily in the 11th century. Robert was born ...

, son of Tancred, conquered several regions of southern Italy in 1060. The island of Sicily was split politically between three

emirs Emir (; ' (), also transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person possessing actual or ceremonial authority. The title has ...

, and the sizable Byzantine Orthodox Christian population rebelled against the ruling Muslims. One year later

Messina Messina ( , ; ; ; ) is a harbour city and the capital city, capital of the Italian Metropolitan City of Messina. It is the third largest city on the island of Sicily, and the 13th largest city in Italy, with a population of 216,918 inhabitants ...

fell to troops under the leadership of Roger Bosso (the brother of Robert Guiscard and the future Count

Roger I of Sicily Roger I (; ; ; Norse: ''Rogeirr''; 1031 – 22 June 1101), nicknamed "Roger Bosso" and "Grand Count Roger", was a Norman nobleman who became the first Grand Count of Sicily from 1071 to 1101. As a member of the House of Hauteville, he parti ...

), and in 1071 the Normans took

Palermo Palermo ( ; ; , locally also or ) is a city in southern Italy, the capital (political), capital of both the autonomous area, autonomous region of Sicily and the Metropolitan City of Palermo, the city's surrounding metropolitan province. The ...

. Muslim Arabs and Berbers held onto Sicily and other regions of southern Italy until they were eventually defeated and expelled by the Christian Normans in 1072 to their Iberian and North African territories. The loss of the cities, each with a splendid harbor, dealt a severe blow to Muslim power on the island. Eventually Normans took all of Sicily. In 1091,

Noto Noto (; ) is a city and in the Province of Syracuse, Sicily, Italy. It is southwest of the city of Syracuse at the foot of the Iblean Mountains. It lends its name to the surrounding area Val di Noto. In 2002 Noto and its church were decl ...

in the southern tip of Sicily and the island of

Malta Malta, officially the Republic of Malta, is an island country in Southern Europe located in the Mediterranean Sea, between Sicily and North Africa. It consists of an archipelago south of Italy, east of Tunisia, and north of Libya. The two ...

, the last Arab strongholds, fell to the Christian forces as well.

Norman conquest of Africa

The Kingdom of Africa was an extension of the frontier zone of the

Siculo-Norman The Italo-Normans (), or Siculo-Normans (''Siculo-Normanni'') when referring to Sicily and Southern Italy, are the Italian-born descendants of the first Norman conquerors to travel to Southern Italy in the first half of the eleventh century. ...

state in the former

Roman province of Africa Africa was a Roman province on the northern coast of the continent of Africa. It was established in 146 BC, following the Roman Republic's conquest of Carthage in the Third Punic War. It roughly comprised the territory of present-day Tunisi ...

(''

Ifrīqiya Ifriqiya ( '), also known as al-Maghrib al-Adna (), was a medieval historical region comprising today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and Tripolitania (roughly western Libya). It included all of what had previously been the Byzantine province of ...

'' in

Tunisian Arabic Tunisian Arabic, or simply Tunisian (), is a Varieties of Arabic, variety of Arabic spoken in Tunisia. It is known among its 13 million speakers as ''Tūnsi'', "Tunisian" or ''Maghrebi Arabic, Derja'' (; meaning "common or everyday dialect") t ...

), corresponding to

Tunisia Tunisia, officially the Republic of Tunisia, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered by Algeria to the west and southwest, Libya to the southeast, and the Mediterranean Sea to the north and east. Tunisia also shares m ...

and parts of

Algeria Algeria, officially the People's Democratic Republic of Algeria, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It is bordered to Algeria–Tunisia border, the northeast by Tunisia; to Algeria–Libya border, the east by Libya; to Alger ...

and

Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...

today. The main primary sources for the kingdom are Arabic (Muslim); the Latin (Christian) sources are scanter. According to Hubert Houben, since "Africa" was never mentioned in the royal title of the kings of Sicily, "one ought not to speak of a 'Norman kingdom of Africa'." Rather, " orman Africareally amounted to a constellation of Norman-held towns along coastal Ifrīqiya."Dalli, "Bridging Europe and Africa", 79. The Sicilian conquest of Africa began under

Roger II Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Sicily and Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon. He began his rule as Count of Sicily in 1105, became ...

in 1146–48. Sicilian rule consisted of military garrisons in the major towns, exactions on the local Muslim population, protection of Christians and the minting of coin. The local aristocracy was largely left in place, and Muslim princes controlled the civil government under Sicilian oversight. Economic connections between Sicily and Africa, which were strong before the conquest, were strengthened, while ties between Africa and northern Italy were expanded. Early in the reign of

William I William I may refer to: Kings * William the Conqueror (–1087), also known as William I, King of England * William I of Sicily (died 1166) * William I of Scotland (died 1214), known as William the Lion * William I of the Netherlands and Luxembour ...

, the "kingdom" of Africa fell to the

Almohads The Almohad Caliphate (; or or from ) or Almohad Empire was a North African Berber Muslim empire founded in the 12th century. At its height, it controlled much of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) and North Africa (the Maghreb). The Almohad ...

(1158–60). Its most enduring legacy was the realignment of Mediterranean powers brought about by its demise and the Siculo-Almohad peace finalised in 1180.

Cultural interactions

Arabischer Maler der Palastkapelle in Palermo 002

Following the

Norman conquest of southern Italy The Norman conquest of southern Italy lasted from 999 to 1194, involving many battles and independent conquerors. In 1130, the territories in southern Italy united as the Kingdom of Sicily, which included the island of Sicily, the southern thi ...

, an intense Norman–Arab–Byzantine culture developed in Sicily, exemplified by rulers such as

Roger II of Sicily Roger II or Roger the Great (, , Greek language, Greek: Ρογέριος; 22 December 1095 – 26 February 1154) was King of Kingdom of Sicily, Sicily and Kingdom of Africa, Africa, son of Roger I of Sicily and successor to his brother Simon, C ...

, who had Muslim soldiers, poets, and scientists at his court, and had

Byzantine Greeks The Byzantine Greeks were the Medieval Greek, Greek-speaking Eastern Romans throughout Late Antiquity and the Middle Ages. They were the main inhabitants of the lands of the Byzantine Empire (Eastern Roman Empire), of Constantinople and Asia ...

Christodoulos Christodoulos () is a Greek language, Greek given name. It is a theophoric name which means "servant of Jesus Christ, Christ". It can refer to: * Christodoulos (Greek patriarch of Alexandria), r. 907–932 * Pope Christodoulos of Alexandria, Copti ...

, the famous

George of Antioch George of Antioch (Greek: Γεώργιος ό Άντιοχεύς; 1080 – died 1151 or 1152Al-Maqrizi, ''Kitab al-Tarikh al-Muqaffa li-Misr,'' in ''Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān,'' ed. and trans. Jeremy Johns, (Cambr ...

, and finally Philip of Mahdia, serve successively as his ''ammiratus ammiratorum'' ("emir of emirs"). Roger II himself spoke

Arabic Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...

and was fond of

Arab culture Arab culture is the culture of the Arabs, from the Atlantic Ocean in the west to the Arabian Sea in the east, in a region of the Middle East and North Africa known as the Arab world. The various religions the Arabs have adopted throughout Histor ...

. He used Arab and Byzantine Greek troops and siege engines in his campaigns in Southern Italy, and mobilized Arab and Byzantine architects to help his Normans build monuments in the Norman–Arab–Byzantine style. The various agricultural and industrial techniques which had been introduced by the Arabs in Sicily during the preceding two centuries were kept and further developed, allowing for the remarkable prosperity of the island. Numerous Classical Greek works, long lost to the

speaking West, were translated from Byzantine Greek manuscripts found in Sicily directly into Latin. For the following two hundred years, Sicily under Norman rule became a model which was widely admired throughout Europe and Arabia. The English historian

John Julius Norwich John Julius Cooper, 2nd Viscount Norwich, (15 September 1929 – 1 June 2018), known as John Julius Norwich, was an English popular historian, writer of widely read travel books, and television personality. Biography Youth Norwich was born ...

remarked of the

Kingdom of Sicily The Kingdom of Sicily (; ; ) was a state that existed in Sicily and the southern Italian peninsula, Italian Peninsula as well as, for a time, in Kingdom of Africa, Northern Africa, from its founding by Roger II of Sicily in 1130 until 1816. It was ...

Norman Sicily stood forth in Europe—and indeed in the whole bigoted medieval world—as an example of tolerance and enlightenment, a lesson in the respect that every man should feel for those whose blood and beliefs happen to differ from his own.

During Roger II's reign, the Kingdom of Sicily became increasingly characterized by its multi-ethnic composition and unusual

religious tolerance Religious tolerance or religious toleration may signify "no more than forbearance and the permission given by the adherents of a dominant religion for other religions to exist, even though the latter are looked on with disapproval as inferior, ...

. Catholic Normans, Langobards and native Sicilians, Muslim Arabs, and Orthodox Byzantine Greeks existed in a relative harmony for this time period, and Roger II was known to have planned for the establishment of an Empire that would have encompassed

Fatimid The Fatimid Caliphate (; ), also known as the Fatimid Empire, was a caliphate extant from the tenth to the twelfth centuries CE under the rule of the Fatimid dynasty, Fatimids, an Isma'ili Shi'a dynasty. Spanning a large area of North Africa ...

Egypt Egypt ( , ), officially the Arab Republic of Egypt, is a country spanning the Northeast Africa, northeast corner of Africa and Western Asia, southwest corner of Asia via the Sinai Peninsula. It is bordered by the Mediterranean Sea to northe ...

and the

Crusader states The Crusader states, or Outremer, were four Catholic polities established in the Levant region and southeastern Anatolia from 1098 to 1291. Following the principles of feudalism, the foundation for these polities was laid by the First Crusade ...

in the

Levant The Levant ( ) is the subregion that borders the Eastern Mediterranean, Eastern Mediterranean sea to the west, and forms the core of West Asia and the political term, Middle East, ''Middle East''. In its narrowest sense, which is in use toda ...

up until his death in 1154. One of the greatest geographical treatises of the Middle Ages was written for Roger II by the Andalusian scholar

Muhammad al-Idrisi Abu Abdullah Muhammad al-Idrisi al-Qurtubi al-Hasani as-Sabti, or simply al-Idrisi (; ; 1100–1165), was an Arab Muslim geographer and cartographer who served in the court of King Roger II at Palermo, Sicily. Muhammad al-Idrisi was born in C ...

, and entitled Kitab Rudjdjar ("The Book of Roger"). At the end of the 12th century, the population of Sicily is estimated to have been up to one-third

speaking, with the remainder speaking Romance languages brought from mainland Italy (the

Sicilian language Sicilian (, ; ) is a Romance languages, Romance language that is spoken on the island of Sicily and its satellite islands. It belongs to the broader Extreme Southern Italian language group (in Italian ). ''Ethnologue'' (see #Ethnologue report ...

, the

Gallo-Italic of Sicily The Gallo-Italic, Gallo-Italian, Gallo-Cisalpine or simply Cisalpine languages constitute the majority of the Romance languages Languages of Italy#Northern Italy, of northern Italy: Piedmontese language, Piedmontese, Lombard language, Lombard, Em ...

, and

Old Norman Old Norman, also called Old Northern French or Old Norman French (), was one of many varieties of the ''langues d'oïl'' native to northern France. From the region of what is now called Normandy, the language spread into England, Southern Italy, S ...

Siculo-Arabic Siculo-Arabic or Sicilian Arabic is a group of Arabic variaties that were spoken in the Emirate of Sicily (which included Malta) from the 9th century, persisting under the subsequent County of Sicily, Norman rule until the 13th century. It was d ...

, and

Hebrew Hebrew (; ''ʿÎbrit'') is a Northwest Semitic languages, Northwest Semitic language within the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. A regional dialect of the Canaanite languages, it was natively spoken by the Israelites and ...

. Although the language of the court was the

Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th

Langue d'oïl Langue is a municipality in the Valle Department, Honduras. The town is located near the border of El Salvador and is a regional Hammock making center. Most of the town is made up of sharecroppers and day laborers. There are usually Mormon mis ...

) of Old Norman Norman or Normans may refer to: Ethnic and cultural identity * The Normans, a people partly descended from Norse Vikings who settled in the territory of Normandy in France in the 9th and 10th centuries ** People or things connected with the Norma ...

, all royal edicts were written in the language of the people they were addressed to:

, Byzantine Greek, Arabic, and Hebrew. Roger's royal mantel, used for his coronation (and also used for the coronation of Frederick II), bore an inscription in Arabic with the Hijri date of 528 (1133–1134). Islamic authors marvelled at the forbearance of the Norman kings:

They [the Muslims">Hijri year">Hijri date of 528 (1133–1134). Islamic authors marvelled at the forbearance of the Norman kings:
They [the Muslimswere treated kindly, and they were protected, even against the Franks. Because of that, they had great love for king Roger.
Ibn al-Athir
Interactions continued with the succeeding Norman kings, for example under William II of Sicily, as attested by the Spanish–Arab geographer
Ibn Jubair Ibn Jubayr (1 September 1145 – 29 November 1217; ), also written Ibn Jubair, Ibn Jobair, and Ibn Djubayr, was an Arab geographer, traveller and poet from al-Andalus. His travel chronicle describes the pilgrimage he made to Mecca from 1183 to 11 ...
who landed in the island after returning from a
pilgrimage A pilgrimage is a travel, journey to a holy place, which can lead to a personal transformation, after which the pilgrim returns to their daily life. A pilgrim (from the Latin ''peregrinus'') is a traveler (literally one who has come from afar) w ...
to
Mecca Mecca, officially Makkah al-Mukarramah, is the capital of Mecca Province in the Hejaz region of western Saudi Arabia; it is the Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. It is inland from Jeddah on the Red Sea, in a narrow valley above ...
in 1184. To his surprise, Ibn Jubair enjoyed a very warm reception by the Norman Christians. He was further surprised to find that even some Christians spoke Arabic and that several government officials were Muslim:
The attitude of the king is really extraordinary. His attitude towards the Muslims is perfect: he gives them employment, he chooses his officers among them, and all, or almost all, keep their faith secret and can remain faithful to the faith of Islam. The king has full confidence in the Muslims and relies on them to handle many of his affairs, including the most important ones, to the point that the Great Intendant for cooking is a Muslim (...) His
vizier A vizier (; ; ) is a high-ranking political advisor or Minister (government), minister in the Near East. The Abbasids, Abbasid caliphs gave the title ''wazir'' to a minister formerly called ''katib'' (secretary), who was at first merely a help ...
s and chamberlains are
eunuchs A eunuch ( , ) is a male who has been castration, castrated. Throughout history, castration often served a specific social function. The earliest records for intentional castration to produce eunuchs are from the Sumerian city of Lagash in the 2 ...
, of which there are many, who are the members of his government and on whom he relies for his private affairs.
Ibn Jubair, ''Rihla''.
Ibn Jubair mentioned that some Christians in Palermo wore the Muslim dress and spoke Arabic. The Norman kings continued to strike coins in Arabic with
Hijrah The Hijrah, () also Hegira (from Medieval Latin), was the journey the prophets and messengers in Islam, Islamic prophet Muhammad and his followers took from Mecca to Medina. The year in which the Hijrah took place is also identified as the e ...
dates. The registers at the Royal court were written in Arabic. At one point, William II of Sicily is recorded to have said: "Every one of you should invoke the one he adores and of whom he follows the faith".

Norman–Arab–Byzantine art
Numerous artistic techniques from the Byzantine and Islamic world were also incorporated to form the basis of Arab-Norman art: inlays in mosaics or metals, sculpture of
ivory Ivory is a hard, white material from the tusks (traditionally from elephants) and Tooth, teeth of animals, that consists mainly of dentine, one of the physical structures of teeth and tusks. The chemical structure of the teeth and tusks of mamm ...
or
porphyry Porphyry (; , ''Porphyrios'' "purple-clad") may refer to: Geology * Porphyry (geology), an igneous rock with large crystals in a fine-grained matrix, often purple, and prestigious Roman sculpture material * Shoksha porphyry, quartzite of purple c ...
, sculpture of hard stones, bronze foundries, manufacture of silk (for which Roger II established a ''regium ergasterium'', a state enterprise which would give Sicily the monopoly of silk manufacture for all Western Europe). During a raid on the Byzantine Empire, Roger II's admiral George of Antioch had transported the silk weavers from
Thebes, Greece Thebes ( ; , ''Thíva'' ; , ''Thêbai'' .) is a city in Boeotia, Central Greece (administrative region), Central Greece, and is one of the oldest continuously inhabited cities in the world. It is the largest city in Boeotia and a major cente ...
, where they had formed a part of the, until then, closely guarded monopoly that was the Byzantine silk industry. The Norman kings were well known as supportive patrons of the arts. An example of this could be seen by the construction of a tiraz by certain Sicilian rulers, which were silk workshops typically seen in Islamic regimes, particularly in Egypt. Roger II was one such prominent patron of the arts, with the most well-known image of him in Sicily being found at the Church of Santa Maria dell’Ammiraglio. The cultural fusion of Roger's kingdom is on display in this image, as seen by his donning of a ceremonial costume typical of Byzantine emperors and the placement of a Byzantine crown on his head.

Norman–Arab–Byzantine architecture
The new Norman rulers started to build various constructions in what is called the Arab-Norman style. They incorporated the best practices of Arab and Byzantine architecture into their own art. The Church of Saint-John of the Hermits, was built in Palermo by Roger II around 1143–1148 in such a style. The church is notable for its brilliant red domes, which show clearly the persistence of Arab influences in Sicily at the time of its reconstruction in the 12th century. In her ''Diary of an Idle Woman in Sicily'', Frances Elliot described it as "... totally oriental... it would fit well in
Baghdad Baghdad ( or ; , ) is the capital and List of largest cities of Iraq, largest city of Iraq, located along the Tigris in the central part of the country. With a population exceeding 7 million, it ranks among the List of largest cities in the A ...
or
Damascus Damascus ( , ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in the Levant region by population, largest city of Syria. It is the oldest capital in the world and, according to some, the fourth Holiest sites in Islam, holiest city in Islam. Kno ...
". The bell tower, with four orders of arcaded loggias, is instead a typical example of
Gothic architecture Gothic architecture is an architectural style that was prevalent in Europe from the late 12th to the 16th century, during the High Middle Ages, High and Late Middle Ages, surviving into the 17th and 18th centuries in some areas. It evolved f ...
. The
Cappella Palatina The Palatine Chapel /ˈpælətaɪn ˈtʃæpəl/ () is the royal chapel of the Palazzo dei Normanni, Norman Palace in Palermo, Sicily. This building is a mixture of Byzantine architecture, Byzantine, Norman architecture, Norman and Fatimid archite ...
, also in Palermo, combines harmoniously a variety of styles: the
Norman architecture The term Norman architecture is used to categorise styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the various lands under their dominion or influence in the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular the term is traditionally used f ...
and door decor, the Arabic arches and scripts adorning the roof, the Byzantine dome and mosaics. For instance, clusters of four eight-pointed stars, typical for Muslim design, are arranged on the ceiling so as to form a Christian
cross A cross is a religious symbol consisting of two Intersection (set theory), intersecting Line (geometry), lines, usually perpendicular to each other. The lines usually run vertically and horizontally. A cross of oblique lines, in the shape of t ...
. Roger II's royal palace is a tremendous example of the multiple cultural influences on architecture. It features Byzantine Mosaics made in Constantinople and honeycombed ceilings typical of Muslim architecture at the time. Byzantine mosaicists also played an important part in the design of the Cefalu Chapel. The Palace also consisted of two towers in its initial design, one of which was referred to as the “Greek Tower” due to its having been designed by Greek architects. The
Monreale Monreale (; ; Sicilian: ''Murriali'') is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Palermo, in Sicily, Southern Italy. It is located on the slope of Monte Caputo, overlooking the very fertile valley called ''"La Conca d'oro"'' (the Golde ...
cathedral is generally described as "Norman–Arab–Byzantine". The outsides of the principal doorways and their pointed arches are magnificently enriched with carving and colored inlay, a curious combination of three styles—Norman–French, Byzantine and Arab. The cathedral was decorated by Byzantine masters. The Santa Maria dell'Ammiraglio built in 1143 by Roger II's "emir of emirs"
George of Antioch George of Antioch (Greek: Γεώργιος ό Άντιοχεύς; 1080 – died 1151 or 1152Al-Maqrizi, ''Kitab al-Tarikh al-Muqaffa li-Misr,'' in ''Arabic Administration in Norman Sicily: The Royal Dīwān,'' ed. and trans. Jeremy Johns, (Cambr ...
was originally consecrated as a
Greek Orthodox Greek Orthodox Church (, , ) is a term that can refer to any one of three classes of Christian Churches, each associated in some way with Greek Christianity, Levantine Arabic-speaking Christians or more broadly the rite used in the Eastern Rom ...
church, according to its Greek–Arab bilingual foundation charter, and was built in the Byzantine
Greek cross The Christian cross, with or without a figure of Jesus, Christ included, is the main religious symbol of Christianity. A cross with a figure of Christ affixed to it is termed a crucifix and the figure is often referred to as the ''corpus'' (La ...
style with some Arab influences. Another unusual church from this period is the country church of
Santi Pietro e Paolo d'Agrò Santi Pietro e Paolo d’Agrò is a church in Casalvecchio Siculo, in the Metropolitan City of Messina on Sicily (Italy). It is one of the foremost examples on Sicily of Norman architecture. History The church was constructed during the 12th centu ...
in
Casalvecchio Siculo Casalvecchio Siculo ( Sicilian: ''Casalvecchiu Sìculu'') is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina in the Italian region Sicily, located about east of Palermo and about southwest of Messina. Main sights *Church of ' ...
; it has been described "one of the most sophisticated and coherent works of architecture to emerge from the Norman rule of the island". Other examples of Arab-Norman architecture include the Palazzo dei Normanni, or
Castelbuono Castelbuono ( Sicilian: ''Casteḍḍu-bonu'' or, locally, ''Castiḍḍubbuonu'') is a town and ''comune'' in the Metropolitan City of Palermo, Sicily (southern Italy). It is known for the castle from which its name derives, around which the ci ...
. This style of construction persisted until the 14th and the 15th century, exemplified by the use of the
cupola In architecture, a cupola () is a relatively small, usually dome-like structure on top of a building often crowning a larger roof or dome. Cupolas often serve as a roof lantern to admit light and air or as a lookout. The word derives, via Ital ...
.

Norman–Arab–Byzantine scholarship
The translation of scholarly texts from Greek and Arabic into Latin was common in Sicily, especially in Palermo. Henricus Aristippus would play a major part in one of the most famous translations to take place in Palermo. Serving as the chief advisor to William I, Aristippus would be the one to bring Ptolemy's pivotal work the Almagest to Sicily from Constantinople after being gifted the text by Emperor Manuel Comnenos. The text would then be translated from Greek to Latin by an unknown figure. This was typical of William's court, which was known as being a center of Greek studies in both philosophy and natural sciences. Al-Idrisi was the most famous Muslim scholar in Norman Sicily, as already mentioned for his geographical work under Roger II. He would continue his work under William I, who sponsored him to create a new edition of his Geography, write a book on medicinal plants, and to craft several works of poetry. Beyond al-Idrisi, the Greek theologian Neilos Doxopatres would enjoy the patronage of Roger at his court.

Key figures

Roger II
Roger II was a prominent symbol of the cultural interaction in Norman Sicily. He was known to be knowledgeable in Greek, Arabic, and Latin. This knowledge showed itself in Roger's documents, with an estimated 75-80% of his royal charters being written in Greek. The Byzantine influence on Roger was clear from early on in his life, with his formative years spent in Messina on Sicily's heavily Greek Eastern coast. He was tutored by Greeks and his use of Fabian warfare tactics and his interest in administration and finance are all interpreted as signs of the Byzantine influence on the ruler. He also described himself as a Basileus rather than the Latin Rex. This is not to dismiss the influence of Arabic culture on Roger II. He often referenced himself both as a "defender of Christianity" and as "powerful through the grace of Allah." He was also known to sit in state underneath a bejeweled parasol gifted to him by the Fatimid Caliph. In fact, Roger's love for Arabic culture was so pronounced that Ibn al-Athir would go so far as to point out a rumor that the king was actually a Muslim when writing about him.

William II
Roger II was not the only Norman king of Sicily to exhibit the influence that other cultures had on the island. William II was known to demonstrate numerous marks of Arabic culture, as documented by Ibn Jubayr. Among the things that caused William to II to "resemble Muslim kings" to Jubayr were his immersion in luxury, the nature of his laws, his displays of finery, his ability to read and write in Arabic, and his keeping of Muslim slave girls and concubines at his royal palace. William's royal seal also bore the written phrase "Praise to Allah." The king's trust of Muslims was also well known, with Ibn Jubayr observing that William's chief cook was Muslim and that he was guarded by a force of black Muslim slaves.

Christodoulos
Christodoulos would prove to be one of the most powerful non-Norman figures in the history of Norman Sicily. He was a Greek Orthodox from Calabria, who began his service to Roger I in the 1090s. However, the peak of his power and influence would come under the regency of Adelaide del Vasto. He would be given the title of amiralius in 1109 after having previously acted under the title of amiratus. Under this new title he would command the formidable Norman fleet and act as the de facto ruler of Sicily until Roger II came to power. He also served as a tutor to Roger II in his youth.

George of Antioch
Under the rule of Roger II, George of Antioch would emerge as a significant figure. He was educated in Antioch and “elsewhere in the Byzantine East.” He was known to be well-versed in Greek and Arabic language, literature, and financial administration.

Eugenius
Emir Eugenius acted as a prominent Greek bureaucrat in Norman Sicily. Much like other prominent non-Norman figures on the island during Norman occupation, Eugenius had the ability to speak Greek, Arabic, and Latin. He served under several Sicilian monarchs, with his promotion to emir coming under Tancred in 1190. He is well known for translating Ptolemy's ''Optica'' from Arabic to Latin.

Transmission to Europe
The points of contact between Europe and Islamic lands were multiple during the Middle Ages, with Sicily playing a key role in the transmission of knowledge to Europe, although less important than that of Spain. The main points of transmission of Islamic knowledge to Europe were in Sicily, and in Islamic Spain, particularly in
Toledo Toledo most commonly refers to: * Toledo, Spain, a city in Spain * Province of Toledo, Spain * Toledo, Ohio, a city in the United States Toledo may also refer to: Places Belize * Toledo District * Toledo Settlement Bolivia * Toledo, Or ...
(with Gerard of Cremone, 1114–1187, following the conquest of the city by the Spanish Christians in 1085). Many exchanges also occurred in the Levant due to the presence of the
Crusaders The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding ...
there. The early 1100s proved a pivotal point for the transmission of culture and goods from Islamic lands to Norman Sicily and other regions. The Fatimid port city of Alexandria had emerged as the most prominent hub of Mediterranean trade, and the commerce between Sicily, Ifriqiya, and Egypt was large in scale. This relationship was further reinforced by the reliance of North Africa's population upon Sicilian wheat after being hit by a severe famine in the late 11th-century. Norman inhabitants of Sicily would also play a role in imitating Arabic culture and spreading it beyond Muslim-held lands, an example of which could be seen in the wearing of Muslim garb by Christian women and their use of Arabic, as described by Ibn Jubayr. Roger II would also play a pivotal role in bringing Muslim governing practices to Europe, with his requesting of secretaries from the Fatimid Caliphate to come to Sicily in order to introduce Fatimid administrating and chancery culture to the Norman court.

Aftermath
Arabic and Greek art and science continued to be influential in Sicily during the two centuries following the Norman conquest. Norman rule formally ended in 1198 with the reign of
Constance of Sicily Constance of Sicily can refer to: *Constance I of Sicily Constance I (; 2 November 1154 – 27 November 1198) was the queen of Sicily from 1194 until her death and Holy Roman empress from 1191 to 1197 as the wife of Emperor Henry VI. As queen ...
, and was replaced by that of the
Swabia Swabia ; , colloquially ''Schwabenland'' or ''Ländle''; archaic English also Suabia or Svebia is a cultural, historic and linguistic region in southwestern Germany. The name is ultimately derived from the medieval Duchy of Swabia, one of ...
n
Hohenstaufen Dynasty The Hohenstaufen dynasty (, , ), also known as the Staufer, was a noble family of unclear origin that rose to rule the Duchy of Swabia from 1079, and to royal rule in the Holy Roman Empire during the Middle Ages from 1138 until 1254. The dynasty ...
. In 1224, however, Frederick II, responding to religious uprisings in Sicily, expelled all Muslims from the island and transferred many to
Lucera Lucera (Neapolitan language, Lucerino: ) is an Italian city of 34,243 inhabitants in the province of Foggia in the region of Apulia, and the seat of the Diocese of Lucera-Troia. Located upon a flat knoll in the Tavoliere delle Puglie, Tavoliere ...
over the next two decades. In the controlled environment, they could not challenge royal authority and benefited the crown in taxes and military service. Their numbers eventually reached between 15,000 and 20,000, leading Lucera to be called ''Lucaera Saracenorum'' because it represented the last stronghold of Islamic presence in Italy. The colony thrived for 75 years until it was sacked in 1300 by Christian forces under the command of
Charles II of Naples Charles II, also known as Charles the Lame (; ; 1254 – 5 May 1309), was King of Naples, Count of Provence and Forcalquier (1285–1309), Prince of Achaea (1285–1289), and Count of Anjou and Maine (1285–1290); he also was King of Albania ( ...
. The city's Muslim inhabitants were exiled or sold into slavery, with many finding asylum in
Albania Albania ( ; or ), officially the Republic of Albania (), is a country in Southeast Europe. It is located in the Balkans, on the Adriatic Sea, Adriatic and Ionian Seas within the Mediterranean Sea, and shares land borders with Montenegro to ...
across the
Adriatic Sea The Adriatic Sea () is a body of water separating the Italian Peninsula from the Balkans, Balkan Peninsula. The Adriatic is the northernmost arm of the Mediterranean Sea, extending from the Strait of Otranto (where it connects to the Ionian Se ...
. Their abandoned mosques were destroyed or converted, and churches arose upon the ruins, including the cathedral S. Maria della Vittoria. Even under
Manfred ''Manfred: A dramatic poem'' is a closet drama written in 1816–1817 by Lord Byron. It contains supernatural elements, in keeping with the popularity of the ghost story in England at the time. It is a typical example of Gothic fiction. Byr ...
(d. 1266) Islamic influence in Sicily persisted, but it had almost disappeared by the beginning of the 14th century. Latin progressively replaced Arabic and Greek, the last Sicilian document in Arabic being dated to 1245.

See also
*
Norman conquest of southern Italy The Norman conquest of southern Italy lasted from 999 to 1194, involving many battles and independent conquerors. In 1130, the territories in southern Italy united as the Kingdom of Sicily, which included the island of Sicily, the southern thi ...
*
Norman architecture The term Norman architecture is used to categorise styles of Romanesque architecture developed by the Normans in the various lands under their dominion or influence in the 11th and 12th centuries. In particular the term is traditionally used f ...
*
Islam in Italy Islam is a minority religion in Italy. Muslim presence in Italy dates back to the 9th century, when Sicily came under control of the Aghlabid Dynasty. There was a large Muslim presence in Italy from 827 (the first occupation of Mazara) until ...
*
Italo-Norman The Italo-Normans (), or Siculo-Normans (''Siculo-Normanni'') when referring to Sicily and Southern Italy, are the Italian-born descendants of the first Norman conquerors to travel to Southern Italy in the first half of the eleventh century. ...
*
History of Islam in southern Italy The history of Islam in Sicily and southern Italy began with Arab colonization in Sicily, at Mazara, which was captured in 827. The subsequent rule of Sicily and Malta started in the 10th century. The Emirate of Sicily lasted from 831 until 1 ...
*
Byzantine mosaics Byzantine mosaics are mosaics produced from the 4th to 15th centuries in and under the influence of the Byzantine Empire. Mosaics were some of the most popular and historically significant art forms produced in the empire, and they are still stud ...
*
Emirate of Sicily The island of SicilyIn Arabic, the island was known as (). was under Islam, Islamic rule from the late ninth to the late eleventh centuries. It became a prosperous and influential commercial power in the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean, with ...
*
Hedwig glass Hedwig glasses or Hedwig beakers are a type of glass beaker originating in the Middle East or Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture, Norman Sicily and dating from the 10th–12th centuries AD. They are named after the Silesian princess Hedwig of Andechs, ...
* Charlemagne chessmen

Notes

References
* * * * * * * * * *

External links

The Norman Sicily Project
{{DEFAULTSORT:Norman-Arab-Byzantine culture Arabs in Italy Ethnic groups in Sicily Medieval Sicily Cultural history of Italy Byzantine art Arabic art Islam in Italy Arabic architecture History of religion in Italy