Möng Mao

Möng Mao Lông, commonly known as Möng Mao; Also rendered into English as the Möng Mao kingdom, Maw Shan kingdom, or Mäng Maaw. or Luchuan ( 麓川) in Chinese sources, was a Tai dynastic regime which held sway over the frontier regions of modern-day Myanmar, China and India from the 14th–15th centuries. It grew out of a small principality, centered on the Nam Mao (Ruili) river basin, which had previously been a vassal state of the Yuan dynasty.

Names

Möng Mao Lông (; ) is a Tai Nuea and Shan language name, which means "Great Muang Mao". The " Möng" means country or place. The "Mao" (ᥛᥣᥝᥰ) was evolved from "dizzy" (ᥛᥝᥰ), it is because the mother of legendary king Chao U Ting felt dizzy when she was brought to the sky by a bird. The name "Möng Mao" is still used nowadays, as the official Tai Nuea name of Ruili City (ᥝᥥᥒᥰ ᥛᥫᥒᥰ ᥛᥣᥝᥰ). Alternatively, "Mao" derives from the Shan name of the Nam Mao ( Ruili River).

Mong Mao also adopted Kosambi (ကောသမ္ဗိ) as its Buddhist classical name, named after Kosambi, an ancient Indian kingdom. The name was approximated into Burmese as "Koshanpyi" (ကိုးရှမ်းပြည်, ). "Kosambi" is also called "Guozhanbi" (, zh, 果占璧, links=no) in Ruili, modern Dai people give a new explanation of "Guozhanbi" which is "place that produce fragrant soft rice".

In Chinese literature, Möng Mao was called Luchuan ( zh, 麓川, links=no), first recorded in '' Yuanshi'' as the name of the administrative division "Luchuan Circuit" ( zh, 麓川路, links=no). Some of literature also called Mong Mao as Baiyi ( zh, 百夷, links=no), but most of the time this is a collective name of all the ethnic groups in south west of Yunnan, or specifically refers to Dai people. The Tai name of Luchuan first appears in the Baiyi Guan laiwen 百夷館來文 (“Incoming correspondence of the Baiyi College”), included in the Huayi yiyu 華夷譯語 of the fifteenth century, as Mäng Maaw which gives Luchuan 麓川 as the Chinese equivalent.

In Burmese literature, Möng Mao was called Maw or Maw Shan. In the Manipur literature, such as ''Cheitharol Kumbaba'' use the name Pong refer to Mong Mao.

History

Early history

Much of the early history of Möng Mao before the 13th century is only recorded in local Tai chronicles, and is often described as legendary history. Many of these chronicles begin with the story of (Hkun Lung) and , who descended from heaven and established Möng Mao (or Kawsampi) in 568 (or 835 in some chronicles) and sent their children to rule over Tai chieftanships in the Nam Mao valley. Some chronicles instead begin with .

Modern scholars and historians disagree on the early history, some believe that Möng Mao may have begun to emerge in the 6th century based on the legends of Hkun Lu and Hkun Lai, while others believe that there were no significant Tai polities in Yunnan and northern Myanmar before the Mongol invasions of Burma.

According to the records of Buranji in Tai-Ahom language in 1215 AD the prince of Möng mao lung Chaolung Sukaphaa left Möng Mao lung with his 9000 Tai-Mao followers and established the kingdom of Assam in 1228 AD in the modern day Assam. They were identified as the Mao section of Tai which later called as Tai-Ahom.

According to the research of Jiang Yingliang, the lineage of the rulers of Möng Mao commenced in 1256, and this may have been when the polity emerged after the fall of Dali to the Mongol Empire. At this time, a patchwork of quarrelsome Tai polities existed in the land between Yongchang and Tagaung. They pledged allegiance to the Yuan dynasty as early as 1260. Multiple administrative divisions were set up in the region in 1276, and Möng Mao was designated as .

From 1277–1303, the region was plagued with intense conflict and competition between the Pagan kingdom and Yuan dynasty. The Mongol-Yuan wanted to secure access to the Bay of Bengal, and waged two bloody wars in the region, the First Mongol invasion of Burma which toppled the Pagan kingdom, and the Second Mongol invasion of Burma which drove the Mongols out. The expulsion of Burmese power in 1286 and the shrinkage of Mongol-Yuan influence after the withdrawal of troops in 1303 afforded Tai leaders with the opportunity to reorganise and expand their power, and were now able to build new polities with less outside interference. Mongol authority diminished even further in 1330 when a succession crisis erupted in the Yuan court. The conflict spread to Yunnan, and rebel princes sought the military power of local leaders in exchange for titles and rewards. The rogue nobles were eventually suppressed, but Yunnan had now increasingly come under the control of local leaders, the Prince of Liang in Kunming and the Duan family in Dali increasingly overshadowed the central government.

Rise

Hsö Hkan Hpa (Chinese: Si Kefa) began the expansion of Möng Mao's territory in the 1340s, taking advantage of the good economic conditions and power vacuum in the region. Although chronicles disagree on the exact date of his accession to the throne, the most plausible date given is 1335. In Tai chronicles, Hsö Hkan Hpa gained the submission of neighbouring Tai states, including Hsenwi, Möng Mit and Küngma, and gathered a large army to march into Yunnan. The Yuan court ordered local Yunnan authorities to subdue him and four military expeditions were sent in 1342, 1346, 1347 and 1348, but they ended in failure. Fearing further attacks, Hsö Hkan Hpa sent his son, the heir apparent (mansan 滿三), to the Yuan court to nominally recognize their authority. With the outbreak of the Red Turban Rebellions, there was little else the Yuan could do to subdue him, so he was appointed as the "Pingmian Pacification Commissioner", a title which recognized his control over new territories and further bolstered his prestige and legitimacy.

After the war with China, Hsö Hkan Hpa turned his attention west. He sent his brother Hkun Sam Lông west to conquer Assam, which surrendered without resistance and began paying tribute. However, believing his brother was conspiring against him, he poisoned and killed him on his return. The Sagaing kingdom sent an expedition against Möng Mao in 1356, possibly as a response to Möng Mao's expansion into Kale. Hsö Hkan Hpa then ordered expeditions against the Burmese kingdoms of Sagaing and Pinya. Shan raids were reported in 1359 and 1362, and finally the two kingdoms fell in 1364 and were completely devastated, leading to the rise of the Ava kingdom.

Hsö Hkan Hpa died in 1369. He was succeeded by his eldest son (called Hsö Pem Hpa in Tai). In 1371, the subordinate states of Möng Yang and Kale went to war with each other. Si Bingfa ruled for 8 years and was succeeded by his son Tai Bian (Hkun Tai Pem Hpa). Tai Bian was a tyrant, and was killed by his uncle Zhao Xiaofa (Hkun Ngok Chyo Hpa) who established himself as ruler. A year later, Zhao Xiaofa was killed by bandits, and the people established his younger brother (Hsö Wan Hpa) as ruler.

Conflicts with the Ming dynasty

In 1374, the newly founded Ming dynasty sent a diplomatic mission to Burma, hoping to win over the states in the region. However, due to the roads being blocked in Annam, the envoys were recalled. When the Ming dynasty entered Yunnan in 1380, it quickly defeated the Mongol prince Basalawarmi and the Duan family in Dali, reaching the border of Möng Mao in 1382.

Initially, Möng Mao did not submit to the Ming dynasty and the Ming court did not recognize Möng Mao's control over neighbouring areas. Si Wafa attacked the Ming garrison at Jinchi ( Baoshan) in 1382, but he was soon assassinated by one of his subordinates and (Hsö Hom Hpa) became ruler of Möng Mao in his place. In 1382, Si Lunfa decided to submit to Ming authority, and was granted the tusi title of Pacification Commissioner of Pingmian. In August 1384 Si Lunfa sent a tribute mission to the Ming court surrendering the Yuan seal of commission. As a result he was promoted to Luchuan-Pingmian Pacification Commission with authority over military and civilian affairs.

The Tai ruler in Jingdong, E Tao, who was previously subordinate to Möng Mao, separately surrendered to the Ming court and was appointed as the "Native Prefect" of the region in 1384. Si Lunfa attacked Jingdong the following year to chastise him for his unfaithfulness, and E Tao fled for his life. A Ming expedition was sent against Si Lunfa in 1387, but they were defeated by Tai forces. The Ming believed that the Tai could not be trusted, and prepared military defenses all across the border regions, and diplomatically isolated Möng Mao. In 1388, Tai forces attacked the stockade at Moshale, but were defeated. Further Tai attacks were made on the Dingbian stockade, but these were also defeated. These attacks on Ming frontier outposts led to a large-scale Ming punitive expedition against Si Lunfa, resulting in another Ming victory. Si Lunfa surrendered in 1388, and was made to pay war reparations to the Ming forces.

Dao Ganmeng rebellion

In 1393 Si Lunfa invaded Ava. Despite the fact that he was ultimately defeated, Ava sent an envoy to the Ming seeking their help in deterring Mong Mao aggression. Acknowledging their position, the Hongwu Emperor sent a letter to Si Lunfa in 1396 warning him of retaliation if further acts of aggression were committed. Si Lunfa acquiesced to Ming demands. After Mong Mao stopped their military expansion, Si Lunfa began to welcome foreigners such as Buddhists and former Chinese soldiers into his people's traditional territory. Si Lunfa converted to Buddhism and gave gifts to the Chinese for bringing with them the technology of gunpowder and cannons. This greatly angered the traditional elements in his court and in 1397 Si Lunfa was deposed by the leader of an anti-foreigner faction, Dao Ganmeng, and fled to the Ming government for protection. After reaching the Ming capital, Si Lunfa enlisted the Hongwu Emperor's aid in returning him to power. The emperor, desiring peace in the southwest, agreed to his petition and allocated 100 taels of gold, 150 taels of silver, and 500 ''ding'' of paper money to his cause. The Marquis of Xiping, Mu Chun, was assigned to provide Si Lunfa military support and retake Möng Mao.

They returned to Yunnan and stayed in Baoshan while Mu Chun sent the commanders He Fu and Qu Neng with 5,000 troops to oust Dao Ganmeng. The expedition was met with initial success in battle, killing a Mong Mao chieftain, and routing his army, but arrived at an impasse when they failed to take a mountain stockade due to unfavorable terrain. He Fu relayed his situation to Mu Chun, who came to his aid with 500 cavalrymen, and in the midst of night advanced on the enemy position taking them by surprise. While they successfully took the stockade, Mu Chun died soon after from an illness and was replaced by He Fu, who captured Dao Ganmeng and installed Si Lunfa as ruler of Möng Mao once again in 1398.

Si Lunfa died in 1399, and was succeeded by his son . The strength of Möng Mao waned, and principalities previously under its rule became independent. The Ming court took advantage of this situation by establishing 13 new states under its own rule, including Möng Yang (Mengying), Hsenwi, and Möng Ting (Mengding).

Luchuan–Pingmian campaigns

Si Xingfa was succeeded by his brother in 1413. Under Si Renfa, Möng Mao began a period of expansion into neighbouring regions to reassert control over previously owned territory. Si Renfa expanded west into Möng Yang in 1426, and made incursions into territory north of Möng Mao as far as Yongchang in 1428, but the Ming dynasty did not take any harsh measures against him yet. In the 1430s, conflicts between Möng Mao, Hsenwi, Ava, and various other states in the region intensified. The Ming planned a campaign against Möng Mao in 1434, but it was abandoned when Emperor Yingzong, an 8 year old, ascended the throne.

Si Renfa continued to expand, invading Nandian in 1437 and made further incursions into Ganyai, Tengchong, Lujiang, and Jinchi. Si Renfa appointed subordinate leaders to these neighbouring regions without asking the permission of the Ming court. At this point, the Ming considered Si Renfa unable to be reasoned with, and prepared a campaign, ordering Hsenwi to join the war against Möng Mao.

The first campaign was sent in 1438. One army pursued Si Renfa deep into his own territory, and was ambushed and destroyed by Si Renfa. After his victory, he became bolder and began expanding deeper into Ming territory, marching across the Salween river to invade places as far as and Jingdong and Menglian.

A second campaign was sent against Möng Mao in 1441. After an eight month long stalemate, Ming forces advanced deeper into Si Renfa's territory, and his capital was besieged. Möng Mao's capital fell in 1442, and Si Renfa fled to Möng Yang with his family. Imperial orders were given to Hsenwi and Ava to capture Si Renfa, with territory as a reward. Si Renfa was captured by the Burmese king, but the Ming hesitated to keep their promise of territory, so they did not hand him over to the Chinese. Si Renfa's son, , continued operations in southwestern Yunnan and tried to beg for pardon from the Ming court for his father and himself. He was defeated in Mangshi, but, seeing the Ming troops leave the region, he reoccupied Möng Mao and began invading neighbouring principalities again.

A third campaign was sent in 1443. Möng Mao's capital was captured again in 1444, and its core region was partitioned into a new state, Möng Wan ( Longchuan), with a new ruling dynasty. Si Renfa again retreated to Möng Yang, but the Ming did not immediately pursue him as they were not sure which side Hsenwi and Ava would take.

A fourth campaign was sent to oust Si Jifa in Möng Yang in 1449. Ming armies crossed the Irrawaddy river into Möng Yang, and defeated Si Jifa's strongholds. Though Si Jifa and his brother escaped, the Ming armies considered it a victory and left the capture of Si Jifa to the Burmese. Silu, a younger son of Si Renfa, became the new leader of Möng Yang, the Ming general, realizing he could not defeat Silu and his supporters, made a peace treaty with him. A stone tablet was erected on the Irrawaddy river which marked the boundary, it stated: "Not before the stone is rotten and the river has dried up are you allowed to cross he Irrawaddy" Silu agreed, and the Ming troops left.

Möng Yang period

Sawlon, a descendant of Möng Mao's royal family, conquered the Ava kingdom in 1527.

Capital city

The center of power shifted frequently between these smaller states or chieftainships. Sometimes they were unified under one strong leader, sometimes they were not. As the Shan scholar Sai Kam Möng observes: "Sometimes one of these maller statesstrove to be the leading kingdom and sometimes all of them were unified into one single kingdom..." The capital of the kingdom shifted from place to place, but most of them were located near the Nam Mao river (the " Shweli" on most maps today)" Sai Kam Mong, 2004, p. 10, citing Jiang Yingliang, 1983

List of Monarchs

Saophas

The various versions of the Möng Mao Chronicle provide the lineage of Möng Mao rulers. The Shan chronicle tradition, recorded very early by Elias (1876), provides a long list with the first ruler of Möng Mao dating from 568 A.D. The dates in Elias for later rulers of Möng Mao do not match very well the dates in Ming dynasty sources such as ''Ming Shilu'' (Wade, 2005) and '' Baiyi Zhuan'' (Wade, 1996) which are considered more reliable from the time of the ruler Si Kefa. Bian-zhang-ga (1990), translated into Thai by Witthayasakphan and Zhao Hongyun (2001), also provides a fairly detailed local chronicle of Möng Mao.

Mong Mao Long, or the white fog of Mong Mao Long, was founded in 56 BC by Hso Hom Hpa, a descendant of the ancient Tai King from Nawng Hsè, who sent his son Hkun Hkam Naw to build the city of Oung Pawng-Hsipaw.

Later,the city became vacant. And was pioneered by Hkun Lai, who came from the city of Mong Ri Mong Ram, the city sited in the region called Koshanpye.

The city has gone through many events. Since the reign of Hso Hkan Hpa, their subsequent saopha have assassinated each other. The struggle for the throne led to Hso Kaa Hpa, son of Sao Chang Nyue from Mong Ri Mong Ram (different from Chao Chang Nyue, the 37th saopha of Mong Mao Long) and Mahadevi Phlak Hkam Hsen Mawng, daughter of Sao Tai Lung, the 45th (Sao Pam Myo Pung, his son the 46th saopha, handed over the throne to Hso Kaa Hpa) Hso Kaa Hpa had to evacuated from the Koshanpye. Across the Pad Kai mountain range into Assam in India to established a new kingdom called the Ahom Kingdom.

Mong Mao Long has a total of 81 saophas. Mao Long is currently located near the Burmese border. (located during the Hso Wak Hpa era saopha No.52) in Yunnan Province, which in the past Counting with the provinces in Burma it is a group of Mong Mao Lung, Mongmit, Mongkawng and Bammaw located nearby.

Saophas:

* Hso Hom Hpa 56BC-24BC from Nawng Hsè
* Hso Loum Hpa 24BC-16 bro
* Hso Wei Hpa 16-37 son
* Hso Tawn Hpa 37-75 son
* Hso Guen Hpa 75-125 son
* Hso Pung Mung 125-158 son
* Vacant 158–171
* Sao Hkam Sunt 171-217 son of Sao Hkam Möng from Hsipaw
* Sao Sam Myat 217-263 son
* Hso Mya Hpa 263-294 son
* Hso Kern Hpa 294-314 son
* Hso Kert Hpa 314-335 bro
* Hso Kawn Hpa 335-346 bro
* Hso Tan Hpa 346-372 son
* Hso Kaw Hpa 372-394 bro
* Hso Hang Hpa 394-420 son of Hso Tan Hpa
* Hso Hkuan Hpa 420-470 son
* Hso Huan Hpa 470-506 son
* Vacant 506–568
* Hkun Lai 568-638 from Mongri Mongram
* Ai Dyep That Hpa 638-678 son of Hkun Lai
* Hkam Pong Hpa 678 son of Sao Hkun Kyunt
* Hkam Sap Hpa (Hkam Lap Hpa) son of Hkam Pong Hpa
* Hkam Sip Hpa (Hkam Suep Hpa) 703-753 bro
* Ni Hpa Maung 753-793 son
* Sao Hkun Hpa 793-834 son
* Hso Hkai Hpa 834-863 son
* Hso Han Hpa 863-901 son
* Hso Htao Hpa 901-933 son
* Hso Powt Hpa 933-960 son
* Hso Won Hpa 960-983 son
* Hso Hon Hpa 983-995 son
* Hso Hau Hpa 995–1014
* Hso Lip Hpa 1014–1035
* Hkun Kwat Hpa 1035–1050
* Hso Tai Hpa 1050-1062 son
* Hso Lung Hpa 1062-1081 son
* Sao Sang Mwun 1081-1096 son
* Sao Sang Yaw 1096-1103 son
* Hso Tai Hpa 1103-1112 bro
* Sao Sein Nga 1112-1123 son
* Sao Lung Chu 1123-1137 bro
* Sao Nga Chu 1137-1145 son
* Sao Hkun Ming 1145-1163 son
* Sao Hkun Kum 1163-1171 son
* Sao Tai Pum 1171-1188 son
* Sao Tai Lung 1188-1203 son
* Pam Yau Pung (Pam Myo Pung) 1203-1210 son
* Sao Ai Mo Kang Neng 1210 -1220
He was the one of descendants from Hkun Su the ''saopha'' of Nawng Hsè
* Hso Hkan Hpa (Hso Chi Hpa) son of Sao Ai Mo Kang Neng 1220–1250
(He has younger brother name's Sam Lung Kung Maing (Sam Lung Hpa) became the ''saopha'' of Möngkawng)
* Hso Piam Hpa 1250-1283 son
* Hso Kam Hpa (Tai Peong, Tai Piam Hpa) 1283-1284 son
* Sao Xiao Hpa 1284-1285 younger brother of Hso Piam Hpa
* Hso Wak Hpa (Hso Wa Hpa) 1285–1315
(He established the present of the city located)
* Ai Puk 1315-1330 son
Vacant 1330–1339
* Hso Hkli Hpa (Tai Pong) 1339–1346
* Hso Lung Hpa (Tai Lung) 1346-1396 son
* Hso Ching Hpa (Hso Tit Hpa, Sao Lwei) 1396-1415 son
* Hso Ween Hpa (Hso Ngan Hpa) 1415-1445 son
Vacant 1445–1448
* Sao Lam Kon Kam Hpa 1448-1461 (son of Hso Ween Hpa but some source told he is the uncle of Hso Wak Hpa)
* Hso Ham Hpa (Hso Powt Hpa) 1461-1490 son
* Hso Kaa Hpa (Hso Han Hpa) 1490-1496 son
* Hso Pim Hpa (Hso Liu Hpa) his nickname is Kyie-poi-pei-ma 1496-1516 son
* Sao Sai Lung (Hso Hom Hpa) 1516-1533 son
* Vacant 1533–1604
* Sao Poreing 1604–1611
* Kan Kyaung Hpa 1611-1646 (son of Hso Hkwa Hpa the ''saopha'' of Wanmaw state)
* Hso Luan Hpa 1646-? son
* Hso Kying Hpa son
* Hso Kyoen Hpa son
* Hso Sueng Hpa ?-1699 son
* Hso Bin Hpa 1699-1726 son
* Hso Kyue Hpa 1726-? son
* Hso Yin Hpa ?-1787 son
* Hso Wan Hpa 1787-? son
* Hso Jing Hpa (Hso Hung Hpa) ?-1814 younger brother
* Hso Lueng Hpa 1814-? son
* Hso Suan Hpa son
* Hso Wing Hpa ?-1894 son
* Hso Klai Hpa 1894-1928 son
* Hso An Hpa 1928-1929 son
* Hso Pa Hpa (Hso Wen Hpa) 1929-1955 son (ruled with Hso Kyang Hpa and Fang Hkuea Shang)
* Hso Kyang Hpa (Thao Kying Pan) 1929-1940 (uncle of Hso Pa Hpa (Hso Wen Hpa))
* Fang Hkuea Shang 1940-1942 (Hso Pa Hpa (Hso Wen Hpa)'s another uncle) from Mong Hkawn

Notes

References

Bibliography

*
* Bian-zhang-ga. (1990). "Hemeng gumeng: Meng Mao gudai zhuwang shi History of the Kings of Meng Mao" In ''Meng Guozhanbi ji Meng Mao gudai zhuwang shi istory of Kosampi and the kings of Meng Mao'' Gong Xiao Zheng. (tr.) Kunming, Yunnan, Yunnan Minzu Chubanshe.
*
*
*
* Elias, N. (1876) ''Introductory Sketch of the History of the Shans in Upper Burma and Western Yunnan.'' Calcutta: Foreign Department Press. (Recent facsimile Reprint by Thai government in Chiang Mai University library).
*
*
*
*
* Jiang Yingliang (1983) ''Daizu Shi istory of the Dai ethnicity', Chengdu: Sichuan Renmin Chubanshe.
*
* Kam Mong, Sai (2004) ''The History and Development of the Shan Scripts'', Chiang Mai; Silkworm Books.
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
* . ''14th Conference of the International Association of Historians of Asia (IAHA)'', Chulalongkorn University, Bangkok, Thailand. (Includes translation of (Jiangliang, 1980), a copy can be found at the Thailand Information Center at Chulalongkorn Central Librar

* Wade, Geoff. tr. (2005) ''Southeast Asia in the Ming Shi-lu: an open access resource'', Singapore: Asia Research Institute and the Singapore E-Press, National University of Singapore, https://epress.nus.edu.sg/msl/
* Witthayasakphan, Sompong and Zhao Hongyun (translators and editors) (2001) ''Phongsawadan Muang Tai (Khreua Muang ku muang)'', Chiang Mai: Silkworm. (Translation of Mong Mao chronicle into the Thai language)
*
*
*
*
*

{{Shan states

Former countries in Asia
Former countries in Chinese history
Tai history
Tusi in Yunnan
Shan States
Former countries in Indian history
Former kingdoms
Former monarchies of Southeast Asia
States and territories disestablished in the 1440s