Montezuma's Headdress
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Moctezuma's headdress is a historical artifact that has been long disputed in terms of origin, patron, and function. The object's function was perhaps
featherwork Featherwork is the working of feathers into a work of art or cultural artifact. This was especially elaborate among the peoples of Oceania and the Americas, such as the Incas and Aztecs. Feathered cloaks and headdresses include the '' ʻahuʻul ...
headdress or military device. In the
Nahuatl Nahuatl ( ; ), Aztec, or Mexicano is a language or, by some definitions, a group of languages of the Uto-Aztecan language family. Varieties of Nahuatl are spoken by about Nahuas, most of whom live mainly in Central Mexico and have smaller popul ...
languages, it is known as a ''quetzalāpanecayōtl'' ( ketsalaːpaneˈkajoːtɬ). Tradition holds that it belonged to
Moctezuma II Moctezuma Xocoyotzin . ( – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to in European sources as Moctezuma II, and often simply called Montezuma,Other variant spellings include Moctezuma, Motewksomah, Motecuhzomatzin, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma, Motē ...
, the Aztec
emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...
at the time of the
Spanish conquest The Spanish Empire, sometimes referred to as the Hispanic Monarchy or the Catholic Monarchy, was a colonial empire that existed between 1492 and 1976. In conjunction with the Portuguese Empire, it ushered in the European Age of Discovery. It ...
. The provenance of the headdresses remains uncertain, and even its identity as a headdress has been questioned. It is made of
quetzal Quetzals () are strikingly colored birds in the trogon family. They are found in forests, especially in humid highlands, with the five species from the genus ''Pharomachrus'' being exclusively Neotropical, while a single species, the eared quet ...
and other feathers with sewn-on gold detailing. The object has been in private Austrian collections since the end of the sixteenth century and is now in the Weltmuseum (World Museum) in Vienna, Austria and remains an issue of dispute between Austria and Mexico, as Mexico has asked for the return of the object.


Terminology

In Mexico, ''Moctezuma's headdress'' is sometimes referred to as ''El Penacho de Moctezuma'' (Moctezuma's Headdress). The word “penacho” is defined as feathers on top of a helmet. Penacho featherwork was traditionally used in indigenous cultures, including the
Aztecs The Aztecs ( ) were a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico in the post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different ethnic groups of central Mexico, particularly those groups who spoke the ...
, where intricate feathered pieces were used ceremonially and symbolic of status or power. There is no known evidence that proves the headdress belonged to Moctezuma II. However, it is recognized to have been a symbol of political and religious power in ancient Mexico and similar headdresses appear in Aztec monuments as part of the ritual belongings. This one is made primarily of
quetzal Quetzals () are strikingly colored birds in the trogon family. They are found in forests, especially in humid highlands, with the five species from the genus ''Pharomachrus'' being exclusively Neotropical, while a single species, the eared quet ...
and blue cotinga feathers.


Possible function

There have been many interpretations of the artifact's original function. Some earlier theories proposed the headdress to be a fan, an apron, or even a mantle. Scholars have suggested that the headdress derived its name from the traditional story of the meeting between Motecuhzoma and
Hernán Cortés Hernán Cortés de Monroy y Pizarro Altamirano, 1st Marquis of the Valley of Oaxaca (December 1485 – December 2, 1547) was a Spanish ''conquistador'' who led an expedition that caused the fall of the Aztec Empire and brought large portions o ...
where he presumably gave the
Conquistador Conquistadors (, ) or conquistadores (; ; ) were Spanish Empire, Spanish and Portuguese Empire, Portuguese colonizers who explored, traded with and colonized parts of the Americas, Africa, Oceania and Asia during the Age of Discovery. Sailing ...
diplomatic gifts of headdresses, gold and silver, and clothes to please
Emperor Charles V Charles V (24 February 1500 – 21 September 1558) was Holy Roman Emperor and Archduke of Austria from 1519 to 1556, King of Spain (as Charles I) from 1516 to 1556, and Lord of the Netherlands as titular Duke of Burgundy (as Charles II) fr ...
. Harvard art historian, Khadija von Zinnenburg Carroll, discusses the fact that there were many Aztec rulers throughout history who never wore the same crown twice, and so if there is only one crown left in existence, there is a very slim chance of actually knowing to whom it originally belonged. Some scholars have proposed that this kind of feather headdress was probably used as a military insignia instead of a crown. As such, the headdress, made of feathers, gold, wood, and vegetable fibers, would have been placed on a bamboo stick and positioned on a distinguished soldier’s back. Esther Pasztory has suggested that there is evidence that headdresses, such as this piece, were part of the Aztec royalty for ritualistic purposes, especially to be worn when impersonating the god Quetzalcoatl. Davíd Carrasco and Eduadro Matos Moctezuma have written that according to reports, Moctezuma II had a special devotion and reverence for ceremonies, especially the New Fire Ceremony (''Toxiuhmolpilia''). The object's identification as a ''quetzalapanecayotl'' (a quetzal bird feather headdress) is attributed to American anthropologist
Zelia Nuttall Zelia Maria Magdalena Nuttall (September 6, 1857 – April 12, 1933) was an American archaeologist and anthropologist who specialised in pre-Aztec Mexican cultures and pre-Columbian manuscripts. She discovered two forgotten manuscripts of this t ...
in her research paper "Standard or Head-dress?". Nuttall put forth the theory that the objects represent a quetzal bird with its wings extended, tail pointing upwards, and head pointing downwards. Furthermore, Esther Pasztory has claimed that a model of a headdress or a crown used by Motecuhzoma was depicted in the
Codex Mendoza The Codex Mendoza is an Aztec codices, Aztec codex, believed to have been created around the year 1541. It contains a history of both the Aztec rulers and their conquests as well as a description of the daily life of pre-conquest Aztec society. ...
, a traditional Aztec manuscript. This interpretation, linking the artifact to Moctezuma II directly, prompted the claim for its return to Mexico.


Aztec cultural significance

In Aztec folklore, Moctezuma II is often remembered not only as a ruler but as a figure whose reign marked the coinciding of divine prophecy and political power. His association with Quetzalcoatl, the feathered serpent deity, imbues the headdress with a layer of religious and cultural symbolism. The headdress, crafted with the feathers of sacred birds is a powerful emblem of this connection. In the 20th century, the headdress gained increasing importance as a symbol of Mexico’s indigenous heritage. During this time, it was reinterpreted as an "indigenist" icon that represents the grandeur of the Aztec Empire, aligning with Mexico’s efforts to establish a unique cultural identity distinct from its colonial past. This nationalistic interpretation also influenced the calls for the artifact to be repatriated to Mexico.


Danza de los Quetzales

The Danza de los Quetzales was an ancient dance that originated from the legend of the quetzal, a mythological bird of
Mesoamerica Mesoamerica is a historical region and cultural area that begins in the southern part of North America and extends to the Pacific coast of Central America, thus comprising the lands of central and southern Mexico, all of Belize, Guatemala, El S ...
that was then considered by the Indians to be sacred and symbolic of the essence of beauty and elegance. Moctezuma's headdress is told to have been formed from twenty four feathers captured at great peril from the long tails of the quetzals. In the city of Puebla, located in central Mexico during the time of the
Aztec Empire The Aztec Empire, also known as the Triple Alliance (, Help:IPA/Nahuatl, jéːʃkaːn̥ t͡ɬaʔtoːˈlóːjaːn̥ or the Tenochca Empire, was an alliance of three Nahuas, Nahua altepetl, city-states: , , and . These three city-states rul ...
, performers trained for many months to personify the bird and illustrate the dignity, godliness, and grace that the Indians attribute to it. There exists an idea that this was the home town of Moctemuza's headdress. It is not impossible, as the Aztech Empire exerted significant influence over the broader central Mexican region, including Puebla.


Provenance

In the late nineteenth century, Austria established its first Museum of Natural History, with geologist
Ferdinand von Hochstetter Christian Gottlieb Ferdinand Ritter von Hochstetter (30 April 1829 – 18 July 1884) was a Germany, German-Austrians, Austrian geologist. In 1857 he was appointed geologist on the Austrian Novara expedition to New Zealand, collecting natural his ...
as its director. While searching for objects to display in the new museum, von Hochstetter found the headdress in
Ambras Castle Ambras Castle () is a Renaissance architecture, Renaissance castle and palace located in the hills above Innsbruck, Austria. Ambras Castle is above sea level. Considered one of the most popular tourist attractions of the Tyrol (state), Tyrol, Amb ...
, Archduke Ferdinand’s former residence in Innsbruck, Austria. At the beginning of the 19th century it was deposited in the Museum of Ethnology (inventory number 10402''VO'') in Vienna along with other ceremonial artifacts of Quetzalcoatl and
Ehecatl Ehecatl ( , ) is a pre-Columbian deity associated with the wind, who features in Aztec mythology and the mythologies of other cultures from the central Mexico region of Mesoamerica. He is most usually interpreted as the aspect of the Feathered Se ...
. Although artifact exchanges and
restitution Restitution and unjust enrichment is the field of law relating to gains-based recovery. In contrast with damages (the law of compensation), restitution is a claim or remedy requiring a defendant to give up benefits wrongfully obtained. Liability ...
of the headdress were negotiated with the Mexican government, a bilateral expert commission deemed the artifact too fragile for transport due to its significant reaction to heat and movement, and thus recommended its remaining in Vienna. In 2020, the Mexican government asked again for the restitution of the headdress, however it still resides in Vienna today.


Description

''Moctezuma's headdress'' measures measures 130 by 178 centimeters. It includes the green uppertail coverts of the
quetzal Quetzals () are strikingly colored birds in the trogon family. They are found in forests, especially in humid highlands, with the five species from the genus ''Pharomachrus'' being exclusively Neotropical, while a single species, the eared quet ...
bird, the turquoise feathers of the
cotinga The cotingas are a large family, Cotingidae, of suboscine passerine birds found in Central America and tropical South America. Cotingas are birds of forests or forest edges, that are primary frugivorous. They all have broad bills with hooked ti ...
, brown feathers from the squirrel cuckoo, pink feathers from the roseate spoonbill, and small ornaments of gold. This artifact is in the form of concentric layers of different colored feathers arranged in a semicircle. The smallest layer is made from blue feathers of the Cotinga amabilis (xiuhtōtōtl) with small plates of gold in the shapes of half moons. Behind this layer is another a layer of Roseate spoonbill (tlāuhquechōlli) feathers, followed by small quetzal feathers, then a layer of white-tipped red-brown feathers of the squirrel cuckoo, Piaya cayana, with three bands of small gold plates, and finally two layers of 400 closely spaced quetzal (pharomachrus mocinno) tail feathers, some long. The quetzal feathers in the center of the headdress are raised relative to the sides. Leather straps attach the crown to the head of the wearer. The feathers of the original headdress have deteriorated over the centuries. The headdress is made almost entirely out of organic materials that are susceptible to environmental conditions. It remains intact but is quite fragile. The feathers have experienced natural deterioration over the centuries, as well as the gold detailing and gold fibers. Though it likely served as a headdress, it has also been identified in other ways. As a headdress, its appearance matches that which is seen in contemporary
Aztec codices Aztec codices ( , sing. ''codex'') are Mesoamerican manuscripts made by the pre-Columbian Aztec, and their Nahuatl-speaking descendants during the colonial period in Mexico. Most of their content is pictorial in nature and they come from ...
being worn by priests during the festival of Xocotlhuetzi. However, its appearance also matches that of other kinds of objects also seen in contemporary depictions. In Codex Cozcatzin, emperor Axayácatl is depicted during the Battle of Tlatelolco wearing a quetzal-feathered battle standard and some sort of large device in the back, both of which have a similar appearance. In all situations, it appears that the object is associated with the deity Quetzalcoatl. Regardless, there is no direct evidence which suggests that it actually belonged to Moctezuma.


Replica

In 1940, a
replica A replica is an exact (usually 1:1 in scale) copy or remake of an object, made out of the same raw materials, whether a molecule, a work of art, or a commercial product. The term is also used for copies that closely resemble the original, without ...
was made specifically for display in Mexico City. The replica is currently displayed at the National Museum of Anthropology in
Mexico City Mexico City is the capital city, capital and List of cities in Mexico, largest city of Mexico, as well as the List of North American cities by population, most populous city in North America. It is one of the most important cultural and finan ...
, serving as a symbol of Mexico's Aztec heritage, allowing visitors to connect with an essential part of
Aztec The Aztecs ( ) were a Mesoamerican civilization that flourished in central Mexico in the Post-Classic stage, post-classic period from 1300 to 1521. The Aztec people included different Indigenous peoples of Mexico, ethnic groups of central ...
history while discussions about
repatriation Repatriation is the return of a thing or person to its or their country of origin, respectively. The term may refer to non-human entities, such as converting a foreign currency into the currency of one's own country, as well as the return of mi ...
continue.


Repatriation dispute between Mexico and Austria

Efforts to identify the origins and cultural significance of the headdress have continued over the years. Scholars and researchers have debated its
provenance Provenance () is the chronology of the ownership, custody or location of a historical object. The term was originally mostly used in relation to works of art, but is now used in similar senses in a wide range of fields, including archaeology, p ...
, questioning whether it was truly owned by "
Moctezuma II Moctezuma Xocoyotzin . ( – 29 June 1520), retroactively referred to in European sources as Moctezuma II, and often simply called Montezuma,Other variant spellings include Moctezuma, Motewksomah, Motecuhzomatzin, Moteuczoma, Motecuhzoma, Motē ...
" or served a broader ceremonial purpose in Aztec society. The headdress, made of vibrant " Resplendent quetzal" feathers and adorned with gold, is considered a masterpiece of Mesoamerican craftsmanship. Furthermore, the headdress remains a focal point of cultural heritage discussions, with Mexico frequently advocating for its return as part of ongoing
repatriation Repatriation is the return of a thing or person to its or their country of origin, respectively. The term may refer to non-human entities, such as converting a foreign currency into the currency of one's own country, as well as the return of mi ...
dialogues. These debates highlight the broader issues of colonial-era artifact displacement and the ethical considerations surrounding their modern-day ownership and display. Between 1992 and 2002, repeated protests by indigenous Mexica activists in
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
demanded the return of the headdress. The leading figure in these protests was an Aztec activist named Xokonoschtletl Gómora (Spanish name Antonio Gomora) who advocated for the artifact's repatriation. The demonstrations escalated to the point that, in 1992, the police had to secure the entrance of the Museum of Ethnology. Xokonoschtletl contacted parliamentarians in Mexico and Austria, carried out media campaigns, and even allegedly brought the case to the
United Nations The United Nations (UN) is the Earth, global intergovernmental organization established by the signing of the Charter of the United Nations, UN Charter on 26 June 1945 with the stated purpose of maintaining international peace and internationa ...
and the
Pope The pope is the bishop of Rome and the Head of the Church#Catholic Church, visible head of the worldwide Catholic Church. He is also known as the supreme pontiff, Roman pontiff, or sovereign pontiff. From the 8th century until 1870, the po ...
. Some scholars argue that it was him who put the case to return the artifact into motion. One of the official motives for wanting to return it was the recognition of the fact that Mexico had protested against Hitler’s annexation of Austria in 1938.


Assessing preservation and transport feasibility

In 2010, Mexico and Austria launched a research initiative to assess the condition of the headdress and explore the feasibility of loaning it to Mexico. The study involved cleaning the artifact and examining methods to mitigate
vibration Vibration () is a mechanical phenomenon whereby oscillations occur about an equilibrium point. Vibration may be deterministic if the oscillations can be characterised precisely (e.g. the periodic motion of a pendulum), or random if the os ...
s that could harm it during transit. The findings determined that the headdress was too delicate to be transported. The conclusion of the study has played a significant role in shaping discussions around the ownership of headdress's future. While the artifact remains in
Austria Austria, formally the Republic of Austria, is a landlocked country in Central Europe, lying in the Eastern Alps. It is a federation of nine Federal states of Austria, states, of which the capital Vienna is the List of largest cities in Aust ...
, the research project fostered a deeper collaboration between Mexican and Austrian experts, leading to advancements in conservation techniques. It also reignited debates over the ethical and cultural implications of retaining such artifacts outside their countries of origin. Despite the logistical challenges, Mexico continues to advocate for innovative solutions, such as virtual
repatriation Repatriation is the return of a thing or person to its or their country of origin, respectively. The term may refer to non-human entities, such as converting a foreign currency into the currency of one's own country, as well as the return of mi ...
or temporary exhibitions within the framework of strict preservation protocols, to make the headdress accessible to its people.


See also

* Xokonoschtletl Gómora — Mexican activist who has struggled for the return of Moctezuma's headdress.


References

{{reflist


External links


Propuesta de trueque histórico por el Penacho

"El penacho de Moctezuma es un atavío para la cabeza"
nota de prensa emitida por el
Conaculta The Secretariat of Culture () — formerly known as the National Council for Culture and Arts ( or CONACULTA) before being elevated to ministerial level in 2015 — is a Mexican government agency in charge of the nation's museums and monuments ...

"El penacho de Moctezuma es una capa de sacerdote, afirma un investigador", a letter in the journal ''La Jornada''

"Discutirá el Parlamento de Austria si devuelve el penacho de Moctezuma", in the journal ''La Jornada''


* ttps://web.archive.org/web/20110120174631/http://swadesh.unam.mx/actualidades/Actualidades/12/texto12/penacho.html "¿De quien es el penacho de Moctezuma?", by Carmen Cook de Leonard* http://www.yankuikanahuak.o-f.com/Xoko.htm * http://www.thehistoryblog.com/archives/16445 Mexican art Cultural history of Mexico Featherwork Individual crowns Aztec artifacts Aztec clothing