Money, John
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John William Money (8 July 1921 – 7 July 2006) was a New Zealand American psychologist,
sexologist Sexology is the scientific study of human sexuality, including human sexual interests, behaviors, and functions. The term ''sexology'' does not generally refer to the non-scientific study of sexuality, such as social criticism. Sexologists app ...
and professor at
Johns Hopkins University The Johns Hopkins University (often abbreviated as Johns Hopkins, Hopkins, or JHU) is a private university, private research university in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Founded in 1876 based on the European research institution model, J ...
known for his research on
human sexual behavior Human sexual activity, human sexual practice or human sexual behaviour is the manner in which humans experience and express their sexuality. People engage in a variety of sexual acts, ranging from activities done alone (e.g., masturbation) t ...
and
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
. Money advanced the use of more accurate terminology in sex research, coining the terms ''
gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
'' and ''
sexual orientation Sexual orientation is an enduring personal pattern of romantic attraction or sexual attraction (or a combination of these) to persons of the opposite sex or gender, the same sex or gender, or to both sexes or more than one gender. Patterns ar ...
''. Despite widespread popular belief, Money did not coin the term ''gender identity''. Money pioneered drug treatment for sex offenders to extinguish their sex drives. Since the 1990s, Money's work and research has been subject to significant academic and public scrutiny. A 1997 academic study criticized Money's work in many respects, particularly in regard to the involuntary sex-reassignment of the child
David Reimer David Reimer (born Bruce Peter Reimer; 22 August 1965 – 4 May 2004) was a Canadian man raised as a girl following medical advice and intervention after his penis was severely injured during a botched circumcision in infancy. The psychologis ...
. Money allegedly coerced David and his brother Brian to perform sexual rehearsal with each other, which Money then photographed. David Reimer lived a troubled life, ending with his suicide at 38 following his brother's suicide. Money believed that
transgender A transgender (often shortened to trans) person has a gender identity different from that typically associated with the sex they were sex assignment, assigned at birth. The opposite of ''transgender'' is ''cisgender'', which describes perso ...
people had an '' idée fixe'', and established the Johns Hopkins Gender Identity Clinic in 1965. He screened adult patients for two years prior to granting them a medical transition, and believed sex roles should be de-stereotyped, so that masculine women would be less likely to desire transition. Money is generally viewed as a negative figure by the transgender community. Money's writing has been translated into many languages and includes around 2,000 articles, books, chapters and reviews. He received around 65 honors, awards and degrees in his lifetime.


Early life

Money was born in
Morrinsville Morrinsville () is a provincial town in the Waikato region of New Zealand's North Island. Morrinsville is a service town for the local dairy industry; the area surrounding the town has the highest concentration of dairy cattle in New Zealand. ...
, New Zealand, to a
Christian fundamentalist Christian fundamentalism, also known as fundamental Christianity or fundamentalist Christianity, is a religious movement emphasizing biblical literalism. In its modern form, it began in the late 19th and early 20th centuries among British an ...
family of English and Welsh descent. His parents were members of the
Plymouth Brethren Christian Church The Plymouth Brethren Christian Church (PBCC) (an Australian Public Company Limited by Guarantee, ACN: 158 542 075) also known as Raven Brethren or Taylorites is a Christian denomination currently led by Australian businessman Bruce Hales. The g ...
. He attended
Hutt Valley High School Hutt Valley High School is a State school, state coeducational secondary school located in central Lower Hutt, New Zealand. A total of students from Years 9 to 13 (ages 12 to 18) attend the school as of making the school one of the largest ...
and initially studied psychology at
Victoria University of Wellington Victoria University of Wellington (), also known by its shorter names "VUW" or "Vic", is a public university, public research university in Wellington, New Zealand. It was established in 1897 by Act of New Zealand Parliament, Parliament, and w ...
, graduating with a double master's degree in psychology and education in 1944. He was a junior member of the psychology faculty at the
University of Otago The University of Otago () is a public university, public research university, research collegiate university based in Dunedin, Otago, New Zealand. Founded in 1869, Otago is New Zealand's oldest university and one of the oldest universities in ...
in
Dunedin Dunedin ( ; ) is the second-most populous city in the South Island of New Zealand (after Christchurch), and the principal city of the Otago region. Its name comes from ("fort of Edin"), the Scottish Gaelic name for Edinburgh, the capital of S ...
. Author
Janet Frame Janet Paterson Frame (28 August 1924 – 29 January 2004) was a New Zealand author. She is internationally renowned for her work, which includes novels, short stories, poetry, juvenile fiction, and an autobiography, and received numerous award ...
attended some of Money's classes at the University of Otago, as part of her teacher training. Frame was attracted to Money, and eager to please him.King, Michael. ''An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.'' Penguin (NZ), 2002. pp. 64-5. In October 1945, after Frame wrote an essay mentioning her thoughts of suicide, Money convinced Frame to enter the psychiatric ward at
Dunedin Hospital Dunedin Hospital is the main public hospital in Dunedin, New Zealand. It serves as the major base hospital for the Otago and Southland regions with a potential catchment radius of roughly 300 kilometres, and a population catchment of around 330 ...
, where she was misdiagnosed as suffering from
schizophrenia Schizophrenia () is a mental disorder characterized variously by hallucinations (typically, Auditory hallucination#Schizophrenia, hearing voices), delusions, thought disorder, disorganized thinking and behavior, and Reduced affect display, f ...
.Frame, Janet. ''An Autobiography.'' (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 374–5King, Michael. ''An Inward Sun: The World of Janet Frame.'' Penguin (NZ), 2002. p. 69, 70, 97, 105, 111, 112, 186, Frame then spent eight years in psychiatric institutions, during which she was subjected to
electroshock Electroshock may refer to: * ''Electroshock'' (album), a 2012 album by Kate Ryan * Electroshock (wrestler), ring name of Edgar Luna Pozos (born 1970), Mexican ''luchador'' * Electroshock therapy, the former name for electroconvulsive therapy * E ...
and
insulin shock therapy Insulin shock therapy or insulin coma therapy was a form of psychiatric treatment in which patients were repeatedly injected with large doses of insulin in order to produce daily comas over several weeks.Neustatter WL (1948) ''Modern psychiatry ...
. Frame narrowly missed being
lobotomized A lobotomy () or leucotomy is a discredited form of Neurosurgery, neurosurgical treatment for mental disorder, psychiatric disorder or neurological disorder (e.g. epilepsy, Depression in childhood and adolescence, depression) that involves sev ...
.Frame, Janet. ''An Autobiography.'' (collected edition). Auckland: Century Hutchinson, 1989; New York: George Braziller, 1991. pp. 222–23 In Frame's autobiography, ''An Angel at My Table'', Money is referred to as John Forrest.


Career and views

In 1947, at the age of 26, Money emigrated to the United States to study at the Psychiatric Institute of the
University of Pittsburgh The University of Pittsburgh (Pitt) is a Commonwealth System of Higher Education, state-related research university in Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania, United States. The university is composed of seventeen undergraduate and graduate schools and colle ...
. He left Pittsburgh and earned his PhD from
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
in 1952. Money became a professor of
pediatrics Pediatrics (American English) also spelled paediatrics (British English), is the branch of medicine that involves the medical care of infants, children, Adolescence, adolescents, and young adults. In the United Kingdom, pediatrics covers many o ...
and
medical psychology Medical psychology or Medicopsychology is the application of psychological principles to the practice of medicine, sometimes using drugs for both physical and mental disorders. A medical psychologist must obtain specific qualification in psych ...
at
Johns Hopkins University The Johns Hopkins University (often abbreviated as Johns Hopkins, Hopkins, or JHU) is a private university, private research university in Baltimore, Maryland, United States. Founded in 1876 based on the European research institution model, J ...
, where he worked from 1952 until his death. Money proposed and developed several theories related to the topics of
gender identity Gender identity is the personal sense of one's own gender. Gender identity can correlate with a person's assigned sex or can differ from it. In most individuals, the various biological determinants of sex are congruent and consistent with the in ...
and
gender roles A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gende ...
, and coined terms like gender role and
lovemap The lovemap is a concept originated by sexologist John Money in his discussions of how people develop their sexual preferences. Money defined it as "a developmental representation or template in the mind and in the brain depicting the idealized ...
. He popularised the term ''paraphilia'' (appearing in the
DSM-III The ''Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders'' (''DSM''; latest edition: ''DSM-5-TR'', published in March 2022) is a publication by the American Psychiatric Association (APA) for the classification of mental disorders using a c ...
, which would later replace ''perversions'') and introduced the term ''sexual orientation'' in place of ''sexual preference'', arguing that attraction is not necessarily a matter of free choice. Although often misattributed to him, Money did not coin the term '''gender identity. In 1960 and 1961, he co-authored two papers with Richard Green. Believing that gender identity was malleable within the first two years of life, Money advocated for the surgical "normalization" of the genitalia of
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
infants. Money pioneered the use of drug treatment for sex offenders to extinguish their sex drives. According to a 1987 paper, he employed the drug Depo-Provera (
medroxyprogesterone acetate Medroxyprogesterone acetate (MPA), also known as depot medroxyprogesterone acetate (DMPA) in injectable form and sold under the brand name Depo-Provera among others, is a hormonal medication of the progestin type. It is used as a method of ...
) for use on sex offenders at Johns Hopkins beginning in 1966. The practice later spread in the United States and Europe.


Sex reassignment of David Reimer

In 1966, a botched
circumcision Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. T ...
left eight-month-old Reimer without a penis. Money persuaded the baby's parents that
sex reassignment surgery Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associat ...
would be in Reimer's best interest. At the age of 22 months, Reimer underwent an
orchiectomy Orchiectomy (also named orchidectomy) is a surgery, surgical procedure in which one or both testicles are removed. The surgery can be performed for various reasons: *treatment for testicular cancer *as part of gender-affirming surgery for trans ...
, in which his testicles were surgically removed. He was reassigned to be raised as female and his name changed from Bruce to Brenda. Money further recommended hormone treatment, to which the parents agreed. Money then recommended a surgical procedure to create an artificial vagina, which the parents refused. Money published a number of papers reporting the reassignment as successful. David Reimer was raised under the "
optimum gender rearing model Various criteria have been offered for the definition of intersex, including ambiguous genitalia, atypical genitalia, and differential sexual development. Ambiguous genitalia occurs in roughly 0.05% of all births, usually caused by masculiniza ...
" which was the common model for sex and gender socialization/
medicalization Medicalization is the process by which human conditions and problems come to be defined and treated as medical conditions, and thus become the subject of medical study, diagnosis, prevention, or treatment. Medicalization can be driven by new evi ...
for
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
youth. The model was heavily criticized for being
sexist Sexism is prejudice or discrimination based on one's sex or gender. Sexism can affect anyone, but primarily affects women and girls. It has been linked to gender roles and stereotypes, and may include the belief that one sex or gender is int ...
, and for assigning an arbitrary
gender binary The gender binary (also known as gender binarism) is the classification of gender into two distinct forms of masculine and feminine, whether by social system, Culture, cultural belief, or both simultaneously. Most cultures use a gender binary, ...
. According to
John Colapinto John Colapinto (born in 1958) is a Canadian journalist, author and novelist and a staff writer at ''The New Yorker''. In 2000, he wrote the ''New York Times'' bestseller '' As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl'', which exposed t ...
's biography of David Reimer, starting when Reimer and his twin Brian were six years old, Money showed the brothers pornography and forced the two to rehearse sexual acts. Money would order David to get down on all fours and Brian was forced to "come up behind imand place his crotch against isbuttocks". Money also forced Reimer, in another sexual position, to have his "legs spread" with Brian on top. On "at least one occasion" Money took a photograph of the two children performing these acts. When either child resisted Money, Money would get angry. Both Reimer and Brian recall that Money was mild-mannered around their parents, but ill-tempered when alone with them. Money also forced the two children to strip for "genital inspections"; when they resisted inspecting each other's genitals, Money got very aggressive. Reimer says, "He told me to take my clothes off, and I just did not do it. I just stood there. And he screamed, 'Now!' Louder than that. I thought he was going to give me a whupping. So I took my clothes off and stood there shaking." Colapinto speculates that Money's rationale for his treatment of the children was his belief that "childhood 'sexual rehearsal play at thrusting movements and copulation" was important for a "healthy adult gender identity". Brian spoke about the therapy "only with the greatest emotional turmoil", and David was unwilling to speak about the details publicly. At 14 years old and in extreme psychological agony, David Reimer was told the truth by his parents. He chose to begin calling himself David, and he underwent surgical procedures to revert the female bodily modifications. Despite the pain and turmoil of the brothers, for decades, Money reported on Reimer's progress as the "John/Joan case", describing apparently successful female gender development and using this case to support the feasibility of sex reassignment and surgical reconstruction even in non-
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
cases. By the time this deception was discovered, the idea of a purely socially constructed gender identity and infant
Intersex medical interventions Intersex medical interventions (IMI), sometimes known as intersex genital mutilations (IGM), are surgery, surgical, hormonal and other medical interventions performed to modify atypical or ambiguous genitalia and other sex characteristics, primar ...
had become the accepted medical and sociological standard. David Reimer's case came to international attention in 1997 when he told his story to
Milton Diamond Milton Diamond (March 6, 1934 – March 20, 2024) was an American professor of anatomy and reproductive biology at the University of Hawaiʻi at Mānoa. After a career in the study of human sexuality, Diamond retired from the university in Decem ...
, an academic
sexologist Sexology is the scientific study of human sexuality, including human sexual interests, behaviors, and functions. The term ''sexology'' does not generally refer to the non-scientific study of sexuality, such as social criticism. Sexologists app ...
, who persuaded Reimer to allow him to report the outcome in order to dissuade physicians from treating other infants similarly. Soon after, Reimer went public with his story, and
John Colapinto John Colapinto (born in 1958) is a Canadian journalist, author and novelist and a staff writer at ''The New Yorker''. In 2000, he wrote the ''New York Times'' bestseller '' As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl'', which exposed t ...
published a widely disseminated and influential account in ''
Rolling Stone ''Rolling Stone'' is an American monthly magazine that focuses on music, politics, and popular culture. It was founded in San Francisco, California, in 1967 by Jann Wenner and the music critic Ralph J. Gleason. The magazine was first known fo ...
'' magazine in December 1997. This was later expanded into ''The New York Times'' bestselling biography '' As Nature Made Him: The Boy Who Was Raised as a Girl'' (2000), in which Colapinto described how—contrary to Money's reports—when living as Brenda, Reimer did not identify as a girl. He was ostracized and bullied by peers (who dubbed him "cavewoman"), and neither frilly dresses nor female hormones made him feel female. In July 2002, Brian was found dead from an overdose of antidepressants. In May 2004, David committed suicide by shooting himself in the head with a sawed-off shotgun at the age of 38. According to his mother, "he had recently become depressed after losing his job and separating from his wife." Money argued that media response to Diamond's exposé was due to right-wing
media bias Media bias occurs when journalists and news producers show bias in how they report and cover news. The term "media bias" implies a pervasive or widespread bias contravening of the standards of journalism, rather than the perspective of an ...
and "the antifeminist movement." He said his detractors believed "masculinity and femininity are built into the genes so women should get back to the mattress and the kitchen". However, intersex activists also criticized Money, stating that the unreported failure had led to the surgical reassignment of thousands of infants as a matter of policy. Privately, Money was mortified by the case, colleagues said, and as a rule did not discuss it.


Transgender people and the Johns Hopkins gender clinic

Money had a particular interest in gender dysphoria and transgender people. He maintained that transgender people had an ''Idée fixe'' which was unlikely to resolve on its own, and argued that psychotherapists failed to provide evidence it would resolve with therapy. In 1965, Money co-established the Gender Identity Clinic at Johns Hopkins with the endocrinologist Claude Migeon. Money screened adult patients for two years prior to granting them a medical transition, and reported that none regret the procedure. The hospital began performing sexual reassignment surgery in 1966, and was the first clinic in the United States to do so. According to Goldie, Money is seen as a "negative figure" among transgender people. In one paper, Money described trans women as "devious, demanding and manipulative in their relationships with people on whom they are also dependent" and “possibly also incapable of love.” Money believed that de-stereotyping sex roles might prevent people from wanting to transition, arguing “a tomboy-ish girl, prenatally androgenized, grows up to be a career-minded woman, not a transsexual who claims to need sex reassignment”.


Homosexuality and sexual orientation

John Money was a leading proponent of the idea that human sexual orientation develops through learning and gendered socialization. He believed that males, if surgically reassigned and raised as girls around birth, would grow up to be attracted to males and live as heterosexual women. However, in the case of David Reimer, he grew up to be attracted to women. A 2016 academic review found that in seven total cases of boys surgically reassigned and raised as girls (due to botched circumcision or
cloacal exstrophy A cloaca ( ), : cloacae ( or ), or vent, is the rear orifice that serves as the only opening for the digestive (rectum), reproductive, and urinary tracts (if present) of many vertebrate animals. All amphibians, reptiles, birds, cartilaginou ...
), all were strongly attracted to women, not men, inconsistent with this learning theory of homosexuality.


Chronophilias

Money coined the term
chronophilia Chronophilia are forms of romantic preferences and/or sexual attractions limited to individuals of particular age ranges. Some such attractions, specifically those towards prepubescents and those towards the elderly, constitute types of paraphilia. ...
and nepiophilia (sexual attraction to toddlers and infants) in 1986. In two 1983
case study A case study is an in-depth, detailed examination of a particular case (or cases) within a real-world context. For example, case studies in medicine may focus on an individual patient or ailment; case studies in business might cover a particular f ...
publications, Money stated that pedophilia, among other chronophilias, could be characterized as combining "devotion, affection, and limerence", "comradeship with a touch of hero-worship" and ultimately as "harmless... in most instances".'''' He stated that both sexual researchers and the public do not make distinctions between affectional pedophilia and sadistic pedophilia. According to Colapinto, Money told ''Paidika'', a now defunct Dutch journal of pedophilia, that: Also in 1986, Money postulated the existence of multiple chronophilic forms of erotic age-roleplaying, or age impersonation, which he named ''"''infantilism", "juvenilism", "adolescentilism", "gerontilism"''.''


Books on sexology

Money co-edited a 1969 book, '' Transsexualism and Sex Reassignment'', which helped bring more acceptance to
sexual reassignment surgery Gender-affirming surgery (GAS) is a surgical procedure, or series of procedures, that alters a person's physical appearance and sexual characteristics to resemble those associated with their gender identity. The phrase is most often associated ...
and
transsexual A transsexual person is someone who experiences a gender identity that is inconsistent with their assigned sex, and desires to permanently transition to the sex or gender with which they identify, usually seeking medical assistance (incl ...
individuals. Money introduced numerous definitions related to gender in journal articles in the 1950s, many of them as a result of his studies of
intersex Intersex people are those born with any of several sex characteristics, including chromosome patterns, gonads, or genitals that, according to the Office of the United Nations High Commissioner for Human Rights, "do not fit typical binar ...
morphology. His definition of
gender Gender is the range of social, psychological, cultural, and behavioral aspects of being a man (or boy), woman (or girl), or third gender. Although gender often corresponds to sex, a transgender person may identify with a gender other tha ...
is based on his understanding of sex differences among human beings. According to Money, the fact that one sex produces
ova , abbreviated as OVA and sometimes as OAV (original animation video), are Japanese animated films and special episodes of a series made specially for release in home video formats without prior showings on television or in theaters, though the ...
and the other sex produces
sperm Sperm (: sperm or sperms) is the male reproductive Cell (biology), cell, or gamete, in anisogamous forms of sexual reproduction (forms in which there is a larger, female reproductive cell and a smaller, male one). Animals produce motile sperm ...
is the irreducible criterion of sex difference. However, there are other ''sex-derivative differences'' that follow in the wake of this primary dichotomy. These differences involve the way urine is expelled from the human body and other questions of
sexual dimorphism Sexual dimorphism is the condition where sexes of the same species exhibit different Morphology (biology), morphological characteristics, including characteristics not directly involved in reproduction. The condition occurs in most dioecy, di ...
. According to Money's theory, ''sex-adjunctive differences'' are typified by the smaller size of females and their problems in moving around while
nursing Nursing is a health care profession that "integrates the art and science of caring and focuses on the protection, promotion, and optimization of health and human functioning; prevention of illness and injury; facilitation of healing; and alle ...
infants. This then makes it more likely that the males do the roaming and hunting. ''Sex-arbitrary differences'' are those that are purely conventional: for example, color selection (baby blue for boys, pink for girls). Some of the latter differences apply to life activities, such as career opportunities for men versus women. Finally, Money created the now-common term ''
gender role A gender role, or sex role, is a social norm deemed appropriate or desirable for individuals based on their gender or sex. Gender roles are usually centered on conceptions of masculinity and femininity. The specifics regarding these gendered ...
'' which he differentiated from the concept of the more traditional terminology ''sex role''. This grew out of his studies of intersex people. In his studies of intersex people, Money alleged that there are six variables that define sex. While in the average person all six would line up unequivocally as either all "male" or "female", in an intersex person any one or more than one of these could be inconsistent with the others, leading to various kinds of anomalies. In his seminal 1955 paper he defined these factors as: # assigned sex and sex of rearing # external genital morphology # internal reproductive structures # hormonal and secondary sex characteristics # gonadal sex # chromosomal sex and added, He then defined gender role as; Money made the concept of ''gender'' a broader, more inclusive concept than one of masculine/feminine. For him, gender included not only one's status as a man or a woman, but was also a matter of personal recognition, social assignment, or legal determination; not only on the basis of one's genitalia but also on the basis of somatic and behavioral criteria that go beyond genital differences. In 1972, Money presented his theories in ''Man and Woman, Boy and Girl'', a college level textbook. The book featured
David Reimer David Reimer (born Bruce Peter Reimer; 22 August 1965 – 4 May 2004) was a Canadian man raised as a girl following medical advice and intervention after his penis was severely injured during a botched circumcision in infancy. The psychologis ...
as an example of gender reassignment. In his book ''Gay, Straight and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation'', Money develops a conception of "
bodymind Bodymind is an approach to understand the relationship between the human Human body, body and mind where they are seen as a single integrated unit. It attempts to address the mind–body problem and resists the Western traditions of mind–body du ...
".Money 1988, p. 116. "Bodymind" is a way for scientists, in developing a science about sexuality, to move on from the platitudes of dichotomy between
nature versus nurture Nature versus nurture is a long-standing debate in biology and society about the relative influence on human beings of their genetics, genetic inheritance (nature) and the environmental conditions of their development (nurture). The alliterative ex ...
, innate versus the acquired, biological versus the social, and psychological versus the physiological. He suggested that all of these capitalize on the ancient, pre-Platonic, pre-biblical conception of body versus the mind, and the physical versus the spiritual. In coining the term "bodymind", in this sense, Money wishes to move beyond these very ingrained principles of our folk or vernacular psychology. Money also developed a view of "Concepts of Determinism" which, transcultural, transhistorical, and universal, all people have in common, sexologically or otherwise.Money 1988, pp. 114–119. These include pairbondage, troopbondage, abidance, ycleptance, foredoomance, with these coping strategies: adhibition (engagement), inhibition, explication. Money suggested that the concept of "threshold"Money 1988, p. 115. – the release or inhibition of sexual (or other) behavior – is most useful for sex research as a substitute for any concept of motivation. Moreover, it confers the distinct advantage of having continuity and unity to what would otherwise be a highly disparate and varied field of research. It also allows for the classification of sexual behavior. For Money, the concept of threshold has great value because of the wide spectrum to which it applies. "It allows one to think developmentally or longitudinally, in terms of stages or experiences that are programmed serially, or hierarchically, or cybernetically (i.e. regulated by mutual feedback)."


Personal life

Money was briefly married in the 1950s and never had any children. He was reportedly
bisexual Bisexuality is romantic attraction, sexual attraction, or sexual behavior toward both males and females. It may also be defined as the attraction to more than one gender, to people of both the same and different gender, or the attraction t ...
. According to his friends, Money lived an "eccentric lifestyle." He only bought secondhand clothing and rarely threw things away he deemed reusable. For over 40 years, Money lived in a house in
Baltimore Baltimore is the most populous city in the U.S. state of Maryland. With a population of 585,708 at the 2020 census and estimated at 568,271 in 2024, it is the 30th-most populous U.S. city. The Baltimore metropolitan area is the 20th-large ...
near the Johns Hopkins medical campus. His house had a collection of anthropological art from his travels abroad, including his studies of aboriginal communities in Australia. Money was an early supporter and patron of many famous artists, including New Zealand artists
Rita Angus Henrietta Catherine Angus (12 March 1908 – 25 January 1970), known as Rita Cook early in her career, was a New Zealand painter who, alongside Colin McCahon and Toss Woollaston, is regarded as one of the leading figures in twentieth-century Ne ...
and Theo Schoon, and the American artist Lowell Nesbitt, whom he provided with an
x-ray An X-ray (also known in many languages as Röntgen radiation) is a form of high-energy electromagnetic radiation with a wavelength shorter than those of ultraviolet rays and longer than those of gamma rays. Roughly, X-rays have a wavelength ran ...
for one artwork. Money was also acquainted with
Yoko Ono Yoko Ono (, usually spelled in katakana as ; born February 18, 1933) is a Japanese multimedia artist, singer, songwriter, and peace activist. Her work also encompasses performance art and filmmaking. Ono grew up in Tokyo and moved to New York ...
, visiting her in London with Richard Green, and fashioning some of her sculptures. In 2002, as his
Parkinson's disease Parkinson's disease (PD), or simply Parkinson's, is a neurodegenerative disease primarily of the central nervous system, affecting both motor system, motor and non-motor systems. Symptoms typically develop gradually and non-motor issues become ...
worsened, Money donated a substantial portion of his art collection to the
Eastern Southland Art Gallery The Eastern Southland Gallery is a major provincial art gallery in Gore, New Zealand, Gore, New Zealand. The gallery is housed in the town's former Carnegie library building, which was built in 1909. Though principally a provincial gallery, the ...
in
Gore Gore may refer to: Places Australia * Gore, Queensland * Gore Creek (New South Wales) * Gore Island (Queensland) Canada * Gore, Nova Scotia, a rural community * Gore, Quebec, a township municipality * Gore Bay, Ontario, a township on Manito ...
, New Zealand. In 2003, the New Zealand Prime Minister
Helen Clark Helen Elizabeth Clark (born 26 February 1950) is a New Zealand politician who served as the 37th prime minister of New Zealand from 1999 to 2008 and was the administrator of the United Nations Development Programme from 2009 to 2017. She was ...
opened the John Money wing at the gallery. Money died on 7 July 2006, one day before his 85th birthday, in
Towson, Maryland Towson () is an unincorporated community and a census-designated place in Baltimore County, Maryland, United States. The population was 59,533 in the 2020 census. It is the county seat of Baltimore County and the second-most populous unincorpo ...
, of complications from Parkinson's disease. He was survived by eight nieces and nephews.


In media

The '' Law & Order: Special Victims Unit'' episode "
Identity Identity may refer to: * Identity document * Identity (philosophy) * Identity (social science) * Identity (mathematics) Arts and entertainment Film and television * ''Identity'' (1987 film), an Iranian film * ''Identity'' (2003 film), an ...
" (2005) was based on David and Brian Reimer's lives and their treatment by Money. The Money and Reimer case was highlighted in the 2023 documentary ''
Every Body ''Every Body'' is a 2023 American documentary film directed by and produced by NBC News Studios. It features Sean Saifa Wall, Alicia Roth Weigel and River Gallo. The film premiered at the Tribeca Festival on June 11, 2023, and was released ...
'', in which intersex individuals describe growing up and their struggles due to their gender being mis-identified.''''


Selected works

*Money, John. (1952). ''Hermaphroditism: An Inquiry into the Nature of a Human Paradox''. Thesis (Ph.D.),
Harvard University Harvard University is a Private university, private Ivy League research university in Cambridge, Massachusetts, United States. Founded in 1636 and named for its first benefactor, the History of the Puritans in North America, Puritan clergyma ...
. *____, and Patricia Tucker. (1975). ''Sexual Signatures on Being a Man or a Woman.'' Little Brown & Co: *____ (1985). ''The Destroying Angel''. Prometheus. *____ (1986). ''Venuses Penuses''. Prometheus. *____ (1986). ''Lovemaps: Clinical Concepts of Sexual/Erotic Health and Pathology, Paraphilia, and Gender Transposition in Childhood, Adolescence, and Maturity''. New York: Irvington. *____ (1988) ''Gay, Straight, and In-Between: The Sexology of Erotic Orientation''. New York: Oxford University Press. *____ (1989). ''Vandalized Lovemaps: Paraphilic Outcome of 7 Cases in Pediatric Sexology''. Prometheus Books: *____ (1994). ''Sex Errors of the Body and Related Syndromes: A Guide to Counseling Children, Adolescents, and Their Families '', 2nd ed. Baltimore: P.H. Brooks Publishing Company. *____ (1995). ''Gendermaps: Social Constructionism, Feminism, and Sexosophical History''. New York: Continuum. *____, and Anke Ehrhardt. (1996). ''Man & Woman, Boy & Girl: Gender Identity from Conception to Maturity''. Northvale, N.J.: Jason Aronson. Originally published: 1972 *____ (1999). ''The Lovemap Guidebook: A Definitive Statement''. Continuum.


See also

*''
Comprachicos Comprachicos are groups in European folklore who were said to physically cripple and deform children to work as beggars or living curiosities. The most common methods said to be used in this practice included stunting children's growth by physica ...
'' *''
Intersexion ''Intersexion'' (2012) is a documentary about intersex people. The film was researched and presented by activist Mani Mitchell, New Zealand's first "out" intersex person.
'' – the impact of Money's theories on the treatment of intersex people is featured in this documentary *
Robert Stoller Robert Jesse Stoller (December 15, 1924 – September 6, 1991) was an American professor of psychiatry at UCLA Medical School and a researcher at the UCLA Gender Identity Clinic. He has been criticized for research into finding the cause of tran ...


References


Further reading

*Ehrhardt, Anke A. 'John Money, PhD' ''
Journal of Sex Research The ''Journal of Sex Research'' is a peer-reviewed academic journal covering the study of human sexuality and the field of sexology in general. It is published by Routledge on behalf of the Society for the Scientific Study of Sexuality. In 1963, t ...
'' 44.3 (2007): 223–224. * *Terry Goldie (2014). ''The Man Who Invented Gender: Engaging the Ideas of John Money.''


External links

*
John Money Collection
via the
Kinsey Institute The Kinsey Institute for Research in Sex, Gender, and Reproduction (often shortened to The Kinsey Institute) is a research institute at Indiana University. Established in Bloomington, Indiana, in 1947 as a nonprofit, the institute merged with In ...

Review of John Colapinto's book on John Money and David Reimer
from "
The Weekly Standard ''The Weekly Standard'' was an American neoconservative political magazine of news, analysis, and commentary that was published 48 times per year. Originally edited by founders Bill Kristol and Fred Barnes, the ''Standard'' was described as a ...
" * Joanne Silberner
The Legacy of Sex Researcher John Money
NPR National Public Radio (NPR) is an American public broadcasting organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., with its NPR West headquarters in Culver City, California. It serves as a national Radio syndication, syndicator to a network of more ...

John Money Kinsey Institute
{{DEFAULTSORT:Money, John 1921 births 2006 deaths 20th-century New Zealand medical doctors American sexologists Deaths from Parkinson's disease in Maryland Harvard Graduate School of Arts and Sciences alumni Intersex healthcare Johns Hopkins University faculty New Zealand art collectors New Zealand people of Welsh descent New Zealand people of English descent New Zealand psychiatrists New Zealand scientists People from Morrinsville People involved in scientific misconduct incidents Transgender studies academics University of Pittsburgh alumni Academic staff of the University of Otago Victoria University of Wellington alumni People educated at Hutt Valley High School James McKeen Cattell Fellow Award recipients