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Middle High German literature refers to
literature Literature is any collection of Writing, written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, Play (theatre), plays, and poetry, poems. It includes both print and Electroni ...
written in German between the middle of the 11th century and the middle of the 14th. In the second half of the 12th century, there was a sudden intensification of activity, leading to a 60-year "golden age" of medieval German literature referred to as the ''mittelhochdeutsche Blütezeit'' (). This was the period of the blossoming of ''
Minnesang (; "love song") was a tradition of German lyric- and song-writing that flourished in the Middle High German period (12th to 14th centuries). The name derives from '' minne'', the Middle High German word for love, as that was ''Minnesangs m ...
'', MHG lyric poetry, initially influenced by the French and Provençal tradition of
courtly love Courtly love ( ; ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing various deeds or services for ladies b ...
song. The same sixty years saw the composition of the most important courtly romances. again drawing on French models such as
Chrétien de Troyes Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
, many of them relating
Arthurian According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a leader of the post-Ro ...
material. The third literary movement of these years was a new revamping of the heroic tradition, in which the ancient Germanic oral tradition can still be discerned, but tamed and Christianized and adapted for the court.


Historical overview

The vernacular literature of the
Old High German Old High German (OHG; ) is the earliest stage of the German language, conventionally identified as the period from around 500/750 to 1050. Rather than representing a single supra-regional form of German, Old High German encompasses the numerous ...
period, written in abbeys and monasteries, had been encouraged by the
Carolingian dynasty The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Franks, Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Pippinids, Arnulfi ...
in order to support the work of the church in recently Christianized lands. This eventually lost its urgency under the subsequent
Ottonian The Ottonian dynasty () was a Saxon dynasty of German monarchs (919–1024), named after three of its kings and Holy Roman emperors, especially Otto the Great. It is also known as the Saxon dynasty after the family's origin in the German stem du ...
and
Salian The Salian dynasty or Salic dynasty () was a dynasty in the High Middle Ages. The dynasty provided four kings of Germany (1024–1125), all of whom went on to be crowned Holy Roman emperors (1027–1125). After the death of the last Ottonian ...
emperors, and official promotion of the written vernacular lapsed. The result was a period of around 150 years, , when there was almost no new writing in German. By the middle of the 11th century, there was an increasing preference for German over
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
in writing in the courts, and
Henry the Lion Henry the Lion (; 1129/1131 – 6 August 1195), also known as Henry III, Duke of Saxony (ruled 1142-1180) and Henry XII, Duke of Bavaria (ruled 1156-1180), was a member of the Welf dynasty. Henry was one of the most powerful German princes of ...
was just the first of the princes, in 1144, to establish his own court
chancery Chancery may refer to: Offices and administration * Court of Chancery, the chief court of equity in England and Wales until 1873 ** Equity (law), also called chancery, the body of jurisprudence originating in the Court of Chancery ** Courts of e ...
. At the same time there was a growing audience among the nobility for literature in the vernacular (as was already happening in France and England). The earliest works of this period, such as the '' Ezzolied'' and '' Annolied'', were still the product of clerical authors with a biblical subject, but now directed towards a lay audience at the noble courts, rather than the clerical audience of the Old High German compositions. By the middle of the 12th century, though, more secular works such as the ''
Kaiserchronik The ''Kaiserchronik'' (''Imperial Chronicle'') is a 12th-century chronicle written in 17,283 lines of Middle High German verse. It runs from Julius Caesar to Conrad III, and seeks to give a complete account of the history of Roman and German em ...
'' ("The Imperial Chronicle") and the '' Alexanderlied'' introduced more worldly subject matter, though still within the religious world-view. In the same period, the love lyrics of the Danubian poets mark the start of the
Minnesang (; "love song") was a tradition of German lyric- and song-writing that flourished in the Middle High German period (12th to 14th centuries). The name derives from '' minne'', the Middle High German word for love, as that was ''Minnesangs m ...
tradition. Under
Frederick Barbarossa Frederick Barbarossa (December 1122 – 10 June 1190), also known as Frederick I (; ), was the Holy Roman Emperor from 1155 until his death in 1190. He was elected King of Germany in Frankfurt on 4 March 1152 and crowned in Aachen on 9 March 115 ...
(ruled 1155–1190), political stability and increasing wealth encouraged the nobility to "assert its identity in activities that enhanced its visibility and prestige", among which were the patronage of vernacular literature, sponsoring new compositions, and the performance and copying of existing works. This new, largely secular literature introduced "new ways of thinking, feeling, imagining", seen in the courtly concerns with romantic love, the challenges and obligations of
knighthood A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...
, and a striving for personal honour. Religious concerns were not lost, but the issue was now how to reconcile worldly and divine obligations. From around 1170
Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th romances and the songs of the Provençal language">Provençal troubadours">Provençal_language.html" ;"title="courtly romance">romances and the songs of the Provençal language">Provençal troubadours and French trouvères inspired MHG adaptations, which even from the start showed great independence from their sources. The following decades were a "golden age" (German ), a sixty-year period which saw the creation of works recognized by both contemporaries and later generations as classics: the courtly romances of
Hartmann von Aue Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born ''c.'' 1160–70, died ''c.'' 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including '' Erec'', '' Iwein'', '' Gregorius'', and '' Der arme Heinrich'', he introduced the Arthu ...
,
Gottfried von Strassburg Gottfried von Strassburg (died c. 1210) is the author of the Middle High German courtly romance ''Tristan'', an adaptation of the 12th-century ''Tristan and Iseult'' legend. Gottfried's work is regarded, alongside the '' Nibelungenlied'' and Wol ...
and
Wolfram von Eschenbach Wolfram von Eschenbach (; – ) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry. Life Little is known of Wolfram's life. Ther ...
, and the songs of the Minnesänger, most notable among them
Walther von der Vogelweide Walther von der Vogelweide (; ) was a Minnesänger who composed and performed love-songs and political songs ('' Sprüche'') in Middle High German. Walther has been described as the greatest German lyrical poet before Goethe; his hundred or s ...
. Also among these classics is the heroic epic the
Nibelungenlied The (, or ; or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poetry, epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germanic hero ...
, which drew for form and subject matter on Germanic
oral tradition Oral tradition, or oral lore, is a form of human communication in which knowledge, art, ideas and culture are received, preserved, and transmitted orally from one generation to another.Jan Vansina, Vansina, Jan: ''Oral Tradition as History'' (19 ...
rather than Romance models. Other types of narrative with connections to oral tradition in the broader MHG period are the earlier Spielmannsepen ("minstrel epics") and the later epics surrounding the legendary figure of
Dietrich von Bern Dietrich von Bern is the name of a character in Germanic heroic legend who originated as a legendary version of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great. The name "Dietrich", meaning "Ruler of the People", is a form of the Germanic name "Theodor ...
. In the later MHG period from about 1230 (sometimes termed "post-Classical"), poets built on the achievements of the and expanded the scope of German literature in form and subject matter. New genres included a new style of short tale (German ). Neidhart broadened the scope of the love-lyric with peasant characters and a satirical tone, while political uncertainty prompted a rise in didactic and political songs from the in the footsteps of Walther. With the writings of the
mystics A mystic is a person who practices mysticism, or a reference to a mystery, mystic craft, first hand-experience or the occult. Mystic may also refer to: Arts, entertainment Books and comics * Ms. Mystic, comic book superheroine * ''Mystic'' (c ...
, which for the first time included a number of female writers, this period also saw the first developments in literary prose. By the mid-14th century, however, with courtly culture in decline, the genres which had dominated MHG literature ceased to attract writers, and a new literature, centred on the towns and their urban patriciate, started to develop. Even in the following period, however, the old stories were copied and adapted for new audiences, with the result that many MHG works survive in the 15th century and even later copies, while the
Meistersinger A (German for "master singer") was a member of a German guild for lyric poetry, composer, composition and a cappella, unaccompanied art song of the 14th to 16th centuries. The Meistersingers were drawn from middle class males for the most part ...
continued to develop the work of the ''Sangspruchdichter'' and were still using melodies of Walther's for new songs.


Poets

There is little biographical evidence about the MHG poets. The epic poets generally name themselves in their works, and the Minnesänger are identified in the manuscript collections, but works based on oral tradition are typically anonymous. For the higher status Minnesänger there is often documentary evidence, such as the account of the death of Friedrich von Hausen on the
Third Crusade The Third Crusade (1189–1192) was an attempt led by King Philip II of France, King Richard I of England and Emperor Frederick Barbarossa to reconquer the Holy Land following the capture of Jerusalem by the Ayyubid sultan Saladin in 1187. F ...
, mourned by the whole army. However, even a poet as famous as Walther von der Vogelweide is mentioned in only a single official document, and we know little about the narrative poets apart from what they say about themselves in their works and remarks by later writers. Given the time it would take to write such works, the epic poets would necessarily have been dependent on long-term patronage, and the many incomplete works may indicate a loss of patronage. Some Minnesänger were of high noble rank (including the Holy Roman Emperor, Henry VI) requiring no patronage. For them song would have been an occasional pastime, to enhance their prestige, and their œuvre is correspondingly small. The large number of songs and the increasing artistry from Minnesänger such as Reinmar, Walther and Neidhart, on the other hand, suggest professional court musicians from the ranks of the unfree nobles ( ministeriales). Much lower on the social scale were the ''Spruchdichter'' with their didactic and political songs — wandering minstrels who had limited legal rights.


Manuscripts and patrons

MHG literature is preserved in parchment and, towards the end of the period, paper
manuscripts A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has c ...
, However, there are no MHG literary manuscripts which show the hand of the original author — in fact, it is clear that many authors, even if they could read, were unable to write. Each manuscript was written by a scribe (or several) in the
scriptorium A scriptorium () was a writing room in medieval European monasteries for the copying and illuminating of manuscripts by scribes. The term has perhaps been over-used—only some monasteries had special rooms set aside for scribes. Often they ...
of a monastery or the
chancery Chancery may refer to: Offices and administration * Court of Chancery, the chief court of equity in England and Wales until 1873 ** Equity (law), also called chancery, the body of jurisprudence originating in the Court of Chancery ** Courts of e ...
of a noble court, and might be several generations from any "original". Most manuscripts are, in fact, of significantly later date than the work they record. An extreme case is the Ambraser Heldenbuch, compiled 1504–1516, which includes texts of
Hartmann von Aue Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born ''c.'' 1160–70, died ''c.'' 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including '' Erec'', '' Iwein'', '' Gregorius'', and '' Der arme Heinrich'', he introduced the Arthu ...
's
Erec The Knights of the Round Table (, , ) are the legendary knights of the fellowship of King Arthur that first appeared in the Matter of Britain literature in the mid-12th century. The Knights are a chivalric order dedicated to ensuring the peace ...
and the
Nibelungenlied The (, or ; or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poetry, epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germanic hero ...
, composed in and , respectively. However, many manuscripts (perhaps 75%) survive only in fragments and an unknown number of works have been completely lost. Even literary fame is no guarantee of survival: ''Erec'' was highly influential and widely quoted, but it survives only in the Ambraser Heldenbuch and a few earlier fragments. Bligger von Steinach's narrative verse is praised by
Gottfried von Strassburg Gottfried von Strassburg (died c. 1210) is the author of the Middle High German courtly romance ''Tristan'', an adaptation of the 12th-century ''Tristan and Iseult'' legend. Gottfried's work is regarded, alongside the '' Nibelungenlied'' and Wol ...
and Rudolf von Ems, but none of it survives. Manuscripts were expensive, both in terms of material and labour of copying, even without the sponsorship of creative work or the costs of decoration and illumination found in the most elaborate manuscripts. For new work: This meant that only the church, the aristocracy, or, by the second half of the 13th century, the wealthiest urban patriciate had the means to sponsor literary work. Patrons are not mentioned in love lyrics, but several are named in narrative works and '' Spruchdichtung''.
Hermann I, Landgrave of Thuringia Hermann I (died 25 April 1217), Landgrave of Thuringia and (as Hermann III) Count Palatine of Saxony, called ''the Hard'', was the second son of Louis II, Landgrave of Thuringia (''the Iron''), and Judith of Hohenstaufen, the sister of Emperor ...
, for example, sponsored Wolfram von Eschenbach's '' Willehalm'', Herbort von Fritzlar's ''Liet von Troje'', and the completion of Heinrich von Veldeke's '' Eneas''. In several of his works Konrad von Würzburg refers to patrons, and these include "members of the nobility, high-ranking cathedral clergy, and wealthy citizens who played important roles in the political and administrative life of the cities."


Audience and readership

In the main, MHG literature was written for oral delivery and public performance. First, literacy at the noble courts was limited: while the noble ladies will have had some education as will younger sons intended for the church, most knights were unable to read. Second, the provision of public performance served to enhance the prestige of the patron. Nonetheless, there is extensive evidence for private reading of narrative works — for example, in manuscripts the presence of textual patterning such as
acrostic An acrostic is a poem or other word composition in which the ''first'' letter (or syllable, or word) of each new line (or paragraph, or other recurring feature in the text) spells out a word, message or the alphabet. The term comes from the Fre ...
s, which would not be apparent to listeners. The conclusion is that MHG narrative verse was intended both for readers and listeners, and Dennis Green identifies this as a trend which began around the start of the 13th century, with women readers as a particular constituency It is also reflected in the increasing number of manuscripts from the mid-13th century. However, narrative works with
strophic Strophic form – also called verse-repeating form, chorus form, AAA song form, or one-part song form – is a song structure in which all verses or stanzas of the text are sung to the same music. Contrasting song forms include through-composed, ...
form were or, at least, could also be sung. Sharing its strophic form with the songs of Der von Kürenberg, the
Nibelungenlied The (, or ; or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poetry, epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germanic hero ...
could have been sung, and in all, melodies are known for eight of the thirteen different strophic forms found in heroic verse. And while there is no evidence that the rhyming couplets of the courtly romance were sung, they were probably delivered in a
recitative Recitative (, also known by its Italian name recitativo () is a style of delivery (much used in operas, oratorios, and cantatas) in which a singer is allowed to adopt the rhythms and delivery of ordinary speech. Recitative does not repeat lines ...
style. As song genres, Minnesang and Spruchdichtung were necessarily designed for performance before an audience, and this is particularly clear from the references to dance. But even the lyric genres may have had readers. Certainly, the poets themselves, even if illiterate like Ulrich von Liechtenstein, kept written copies of their own works, which may have been copied for readers. In any case, the song collections of the 14th century, particularly the massive and expensively illustrated Manesse Codex, are unlikely to have been intended solely, if at all, for performers.


Genres


Verse narrative


Religious narrative

The Ezzolied (before 1064), the first literary work of the MHG period, is a strophic work of salvation history from the Creation to the Crucifixion. The other poems from the first century of this period are likewise designed to present biblical material to a lay audience, and range from "biblical ballads" — short poems on individual biblical episodes — to longer retellings of complete Old Testament books. Many of these are collected in manuscript compilations, of which the most notable is the Vorau manuscript, with a dozen Biblical pieces. This includes poems by Ava, the earliest known female poet writing in German.


Historical narrative

The earliest historical poems are closely related to the biblical verse, as they view events from a Christian perspective. The '' Annolied'' ("Song of Anno") () combines salvation history, world history from the Babylonians onwards, and the life of Archbishop
Anno II of Cologne Anno II ( – 4 December 1075) was Archbishop of Cologne from 1056 until his death. From 1063 to 1065 he acted as regent of the Holy Roman Empire for the minor Emperor Henry IV. Anno is venerated as a saint of the Catholic Church. Life He was b ...
. The ''Kaiserchronik'' (completed after 1146, and also in the Vorau manuscript) is the first historiographic work in any European vernacular. In a purely chronological narrative it tells the story of selected Roman emperors and their
Frankish Frankish may refer to: * Franks, a Germanic tribe and their culture ** Frankish language or its modern descendants, Franconian languages, a group of Low Germanic languages also commonly referred to as "Frankish" varieties * Francia, a post-Roman ...
successors, but judges each emperor according to Christian standards, and includes material from the ''Annolied''. A more secular approach to historical figures is presented in the '' Alexanderlied'' of Pfaffe Lamprecht () and the ''
Rolandslied The ''Song of Roland'' () is an 11th-century based on the deeds of the Frankish military leader Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in AD 778, during the reign of the Emperor Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French li ...
'' of Pfaffe Konrad,(), both of which concentrate on the legendary feats of these two heroes. These are two of the earliest German narratives to derive from French rather than
Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...
sources. The 13th century was the golden age of German verse chronicles, starting with the ''Gandersheimer Reimchronik'' (1216). Rudolf von Ems's ''Weltchronik'' (unfinished at his death in 1254) was immensely popular, surviving in over 80 manuscripts. The '' Christherre-Chronik'' (likewise unfinished) and the ''Weltchronik'' of Jans der Enikel also enjoyed a broad readership. These three works were all vast narrative texts with expansive illustration programmes, in the 14th century they were combined and further expanded by the scribes of the Heinrich von München workshop. Later chronicles are generally in prose.


"Minstrel epics"

The so-called "Minstrel epics" (, ) — a traditional term, now agreed to be inaccurate and misleading — are a disparate group of five shorter pre-courtly narratives (''Herzog Ernst'', ''König Rother'', ''Orendel'', ''Oswald'', and ''Salman und Morolf''). They were probably written in the second half of the 12th century, though the manuscripts are of later date. They have in common that they are thought to have been based on oral tradition. All involve a knight meeting challenges on a journey to the fabulous
East East is one of the four cardinal directions or points of the compass. It is the opposite direction from west and is the direction from which the Sun rises on the Earth. Etymology As in other languages, the word is formed from the fact that ea ...
to achieve some goal: Herzog Ernst is exiled by the emperor for murdering an evil counsellor; for the other heroes the challenge is to win a bride in foreign lands.


Romance

From the mid 12th century the
courtly romance Courtesy (from the word , from the 12th century) is gentle politeness and courtly manners. In the Middle Ages in Europe, the behaviour expected of the nobility was compiled in courtesy books. History The apex of European courtly culture was ...
, written in rhyming couplets, was the dominant
narrative A narrative, story, or tale is any account of a series of related events or experiences, whether non-fictional (memoir, biography, news report, documentary, travel literature, travelogue, etc.) or fictional (fairy tale, fable, legend, thriller ...
genre Genre () is any style or form of communication in any mode (written, spoken, digital, artistic, etc.) with socially agreed-upon conventions developed over time. In popular usage, it normally describes a category of literature, music, or other fo ...
in MHG literature. Between and
Hartmann von Aue Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born ''c.'' 1160–70, died ''c.'' 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including '' Erec'', '' Iwein'', '' Gregorius'', and '' Der arme Heinrich'', he introduced the Arthu ...
,
Wolfram von Eschenbach Wolfram von Eschenbach (; – ) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry. Life Little is known of Wolfram's life. Ther ...
and
Gottfried von Strassburg Gottfried von Strassburg (died c. 1210) is the author of the Middle High German courtly romance ''Tristan'', an adaptation of the 12th-century ''Tristan and Iseult'' legend. Gottfried's work is regarded, alongside the '' Nibelungenlied'' and Wol ...
produced romances that were influential at the time and are recognized as classics. All were based on
Old French Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th [2-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...
sources, though heavily adapted and re-interpreted. The earliest German romance is Heinrich von Veldeke's ''Eneas'', based on the anonymous ''Roman d'Enéas'', itself an adaptation of Virgil's Aeneid, but the main subject matter was the
Matter of Britain The Matter of Britain (; ; ; ) is the body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with Great Britain and Brittany and the list of legendary kings of Britain, legendary kings and heroes associated with it, particularly King Art ...
, tales centered around the court of
King Arthur According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
. These drew mainly on the romances of
Chrétien de Troyes Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
: Hartmann's ''
Erec The Knights of the Round Table (, , ) are the legendary knights of the fellowship of King Arthur that first appeared in the Matter of Britain literature in the mid-12th century. The Knights are a chivalric order dedicated to ensuring the peace ...
'' (the first Arthurian romance in German) and '' Iwein'', Wolfram's ''
Parzival ''Parzival'' () is a medieval chivalric romance by the poet and knight Wolfram von Eschenbach in Middle High German. The poem, commonly dated to the first quarter of the 13th century, centers on the Arthurian hero Parzival (Percival in English) ...
'', and Gottfried's ''Tristan''. The central concern of these Arthurian romances is a knight's pursuit of (literally "adventure") — encounters which allow him to prove his valour and moral worth — and ("love"). In contrast to the heroic epic and
Minnesang (; "love song") was a tradition of German lyric- and song-writing that flourished in the Middle High German period (12th to 14th centuries). The name derives from '' minne'', the Middle High German word for love, as that was ''Minnesangs m ...
, however, the knight's lady has a more active role in inspiring the knight to prove himself and his love is always rewarded. Only the adulterous relationship at the centre of ''Tristan'' challenges this pattern. After the classical period, further developments saw an expansion in the range of themes to encompass other legendary material and stories of lovers' separation by poets such as Konrad von Würzburg and Rudolf von Ems Some of these works were very widely read — there are more than eighty manuscripts of ''Parzival'', for example — but by the mid 14th century, though the most popular works continued to be copied, no new romances were being written.


Heroic Epic

Heroic poetry begins to be composed in writing in Germany with the ''
Nibelungenlied The (, or ; or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poetry, epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germanic hero ...
'' (c. 1200), which updated the heroic legends about with elements of the popular literary genre of its time,
German courtly romance In the Middle High German (MHG) period (1050–1350) the courtly romance, written in rhyming couplets, was the dominant narrative genre in the literature of the noble courts, and the romances of Hartmann von Aue, Gottfried von Strassburg and Wolfram ...
. The epics written after the ''Nibelungenlied'' maintain this hybrid nature. For this reason Middle High German heroic poetry is also called "late heroic poetry" (). The genre developed out of an oral tradition and only became a full genre with many texts in the course of the 13th century - only the ''Nibelungenlied'' dates to the main flourishing of courtly literature. A direct reaction to the heroic nihilism of the ''Nibelungenlied'' is found in the ''
Kudrun ''Kudrun'' (sometimes known as the ''Gudrunlied'' or ''Gudrun''), is an anonymous Middle High German Germanic heroic legend, heroic epic. The poem was likely composed in either Austria or Bavaria around 1250. It tells the story of three generatio ...
'' (1230?), in which material also found in Old English and Old Norse about the heroine
Hildr In Norse mythology, Hildr (Old Norse "battle"Orchard (1997:192).) is a valkyrie. Hildr is attested in the ''Prose Edda'' as Högni's daughter and Hedin's wife in the ''Hjaðningavíg''. She had the power to revive the dead in battlefields and u ...
serves as the prologue to the - likely invented - story of her daughter, Kudrun. The anonymous authorship of the Middle High Germans heroic poems forms an important distinction from other poetic genres, such as romance, but is shared with some other genres, such as Spielmannsdichtung. From the 13th to 16th centuries, many heroic traditions enter writing in Germany and enjoy great popularity. From 1230 onward, several heroic epics, of which 14 are known to us, were written concerning the hero Dietrich von Bern, forming a literary cycle comparable to that around
King Arthur According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain. In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
(the
Matter of Britain The Matter of Britain (; ; ; ) is the body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with Great Britain and Brittany and the list of legendary kings of Britain, legendary kings and heroes associated with it, particularly King Art ...
) or
Charlemagne Charlemagne ( ; 2 April 748 – 28 January 814) was List of Frankish kings, King of the Franks from 768, List of kings of the Lombards, King of the Lombards from 774, and Holy Roman Emperor, Emperor of what is now known as the Carolingian ...
(the
Matter of France The Matter of France (), also known as the Carolingian cycle, is a body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with the history of France, in particular involving Charlemagne and the Paladins. The cycle springs from the Old Fr ...
). These texts are typically divided into "historical" and "fantastical" epics, depending on whether they concern Dietrich's battles with Ermenrich (
Ermanaric Ermanaric (died 376) was a Greuthungian king who before the Hunnic invasion evidently ruled a sizable portion of Oium, the part of Scythia inhabited by the Goths at the time. He is mentioned in two Roman sources: the contemporary writings of ...
) and exile at the court of Etzel (
Attila Attila ( or ; ), frequently called Attila the Hun, was the ruler of the Huns from 434 until his death in early 453. He was also the leader of an empire consisting of Huns, Ostrogoths, Alans, and Gepids, among others, in Central Europe, C ...
) or his battles with mostly supernatural opponents such as
dwarf Dwarf, dwarfs or dwarves may refer to: Common uses *Dwarf (folklore), a supernatural being from Germanic folklore * Dwarf, a human or animal with dwarfism Arts, entertainment, and media Fictional entities * Dwarf (''Dungeons & Dragons''), a sh ...
s,
dragon A dragon is a Magic (supernatural), magical legendary creature that appears in the folklore of multiple cultures worldwide. Beliefs about dragons vary considerably through regions, but European dragon, dragons in Western cultures since the Hi ...
s, and
giant In folklore, giants (from Ancient Greek: ''wiktionary:gigas, gigas'', cognate wiktionary:giga-, giga-) are beings of humanoid appearance, but are at times prodigious in size and strength or bear an otherwise notable appearance. The word ''gia ...
s. Closely connected to the Dietrich epics, the combined epics '' Ortnit'' and '' Wolfdietrich'' (both c. 1230) have unclear connections to the
Migration Period The Migration Period ( 300 to 600 AD), also known as the Barbarian Invasions, was a period in European history marked by large-scale migrations that saw the fall of the Western Roman Empire and subsequent settlement of its former territories ...
and may be inventions of the thirteenth century, although
Merovingian The Merovingian dynasty () was the ruling family of the Franks from around the middle of the 5th century until Pepin the Short in 751. They first appear as "Kings of the Franks" in the Roman army of northern Gaul. By 509 they had united all the ...
origins are also suggested for ''Wolfdietrich''. Almost all of the texts originate in the Bavarian-speaking areas of Bavaria and Austria, with several texts about Dietrich von Bern having origins in Tirol; a few others seem to have originated in the Alemannic dialect area in modern south-west Germany and Switzerland. Most texts are anonymous, and many are written in rhyming stanzas that were meant to be sung.


Shorter narratives

In the post-classical period a major development is of new short narrative forms in rhyming couplets, with few clear boundaries between genres and little connection with previous writing except in the religious sphere.


Lyric Poetry


Minnesang

Minnesang is the MHG
love song A love song is a song about love, falling in love, heartbreak after a breakup, and the feelings that these experiences bring. Love songs can be found in a variety of different music genres. They can come in various formats, from sad and emotion ...
genre. The lyrics are preserved mainly in 14th century manuscript song collections, such as the illuminated
Codex Manesse The Codex Manesse (also or Pariser Handschrift) is a (a German term for a manuscript containing songs) which is the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German ''Minnesang'' poetry. It was written and illustrated manuscript, illustr ...
(), which has songs by 138 named Minnesänger. Few melodies survive, however, particularly from the first 70 years of Minnesang. The central theme is the love of a knight for a noble and idealised lady, expressed mostly from the knight's point of view. The knight's love is unreciprocated and his service is its own reward (''hohe minne'', literally "high love"). However, there are many Minnesang sub-genres, some of which depict a reciprocated or even consummated relationship, often with a female perspective. The earliest songs (from ) drew on native German tradition, but from around 1180, Minnesang came under the influence of the Provençal
troubadour A troubadour (, ; ) was a composer and performer of Old Occitan lyric poetry during the High Middle Ages (1100–1350). Since the word ''troubadour'' is etymologically masculine, a female equivalent is usually called a ''trobairitz''. The tr ...
s and the French ''
trouvère ''Trouvère'' (, ), sometimes spelled ''trouveur'' (, ), is the Northern French ('' langue d'oïl'') form of the '' langue d'oc'' (Occitan) word ''trobador'', the precursor of the modern French word '' troubadour''. ''Trouvère'' refers to po ...
s'', with effects on both form and subject matter. By 1200 the Minnesänger had absorbed the Romance influences and started to rework forms and themes independently, leading to a period of "classical Minnesang" represented by the songs of Albrecht von Johansdorf (fl. ), Heinrich von Morungen (d. ), and Reinmar von Hagenau (d. ). The largest surviving œuvre is that of
Walther von der Vogelweide Walther von der Vogelweide (; ) was a Minnesänger who composed and performed love-songs and political songs ('' Sprüche'') in Middle High German. Walther has been described as the greatest German lyrical poet before Goethe; his hundred or s ...
(–), a "massive corpus of great diversity", which introduces an insistence on reciprocity of feeling. Another innovator, again with a substantial œuvre, is Neidhart (d. ), whose songs introduce the peasant girl as the object of the knight's attentions, and for which, exceptionally, a large number of melodies survive. The prolific later Minnesang, from , is marked by increasingly elaborate formal developments but no great thematic progression. After 1300, Minnesang began to give way to Meistersang and
folk-song Folk music is a music genre that includes traditional folk music and the contemporary genre that evolved from the former during the 20th-century folk revival. Some types of folk music may be called world music. Traditional folk music has be ...
. Frauenlob (d. 1318) can be seen as the last Minnesänger or the first Meistersinger.


Spruchdichtung

''Spruchdichtung'' is the MHG genre of didactic song, written by non-noble itinerant musicians. Many worked under professional rather than personal names: Heinrich von Meissen is known as Frauenlob ("praise of women"), Rumelant von Sachsen's name means "quit the country", Der Kanzler is "the chancellor". While there is a small amount of such verse from the 12th century, it was Walther who raised the status of ''Spruchdichtung'' and expanded its range of subject matter to include "religion, ethical conduct, praise or lament for individuals, the conditions of the professional poets’ life, the state of society, or political matters." Many of the melodies have been preserved, notably in the Jena Manuscript, which has
notation In linguistics and semiotics, a notation system is a system of graphics or symbols, Character_(symbol), characters and abbreviated Expression (language), expressions, used (for example) in Artistic disciplines, artistic and scientific disciplines ...
for over 90 didactic songs. '' Meistersang'' is the later development of the genre.


Prose


Prose romance

While prose romances started to appear in France during the 13th century, German romance remained in verse. An exception is the ''Prosa-Lancelot'' , a cycle of three romances translated fairly faithfully (rather than adapted as the verse romances were) from the Old French '' Lancelot en prose''.


Mystical literature

Middle High German
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
, often called "
Rhineland The Rhineland ( ; ; ; ) is a loosely defined area of Western Germany along the Rhine, chiefly Middle Rhine, its middle section. It is the main industrial heartland of Germany because of its many factories, and it has historic ties to the Holy ...
mysticism," is a key prose genre. Three fourteenth-century Dominican authors are particularly important:
Meister Eckhart Eckhart von Hochheim ( – ), commonly known as Meister Eckhart (), Master Eckhart or Eckehart, claimed original name Johannes Eckhart,
,
Henry Suso Henry Suso, OP (also called Amandus, a name adopted in his writings, and Heinrich Seuse or Heinrich von Berg in German; 21 March 1295 – 25 January 1366) was a German Dominican friar and the most popular vernacular writer of the fourteenth c ...
(also known as Heinrich Seuse), and Johannes Tauler. Female religious writers also made significant contributions, particularly Mechthild von Magdeburg (''The Flowing Light of the Godhead'') and Margareta Ebner.


Key authors and works


Early MHG 1050–1170

Religious narrative *'' Annolied'' * Ava *'' Ezzolied'' *Die altdeutsche Genesis *Die altdeutsche Exodus Historical narrative *Pfaffe Lamprecht, ''
Alexander Alexander () is a male name of Greek origin. The most prominent bearer of the name is Alexander the Great, the king of the Ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia who created one of the largest empires in ancient history. Variants listed here ar ...
'' *''
Kaiserchronik The ''Kaiserchronik'' (''Imperial Chronicle'') is a 12th-century chronicle written in 17,283 lines of Middle High German verse. It runs from Julius Caesar to Conrad III, and seeks to give a complete account of the history of Roman and German em ...
'' Popular narrative * König Rother * Herzog Ernst *Graf Rudolf * Reinhart Fuchs * Orendel Danubian lyric * Der von Kürenberg * Meinloh von Sevelingen * Dietmar von Aist


Classical MHG 1170–1230

Heroic epic *
Nibelungenlied The (, or ; or ), translated as ''The Song of the Nibelungs'', is an epic poetry, epic poem written around 1200 in Middle High German. Its anonymous poet was likely from the region of Passau. The is based on an oral tradition of Germanic hero ...
*Pfaffe Konrad,
Rolandslied The ''Song of Roland'' () is an 11th-century based on the deeds of the Frankish military leader Roland at the Battle of Roncevaux Pass in AD 778, during the reign of the Emperor Charlemagne. It is the oldest surviving major work of French li ...
Courtly romance Courtesy (from the word , from the 12th century) is gentle politeness and courtly manners. In the Middle Ages in Europe, the behaviour expected of the nobility was compiled in courtesy books. History The apex of European courtly culture was ...
* Heinrich von Veldeke, ''Eneit'' *
Hartmann von Aue Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born ''c.'' 1160–70, died ''c.'' 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including '' Erec'', '' Iwein'', '' Gregorius'', and '' Der arme Heinrich'', he introduced the Arthu ...
**''
Erec The Knights of the Round Table (, , ) are the legendary knights of the fellowship of King Arthur that first appeared in the Matter of Britain literature in the mid-12th century. The Knights are a chivalric order dedicated to ensuring the peace ...
'' **'' Iwein'' *
Gottfried von Strassburg Gottfried von Strassburg (died c. 1210) is the author of the Middle High German courtly romance ''Tristan'', an adaptation of the 12th-century ''Tristan and Iseult'' legend. Gottfried's work is regarded, alongside the '' Nibelungenlied'' and Wol ...
, ''Tristan'' *
Wolfram von Eschenbach Wolfram von Eschenbach (; – ) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry. Life Little is known of Wolfram's life. Ther ...
**''
Parzival ''Parzival'' () is a medieval chivalric romance by the poet and knight Wolfram von Eschenbach in Middle High German. The poem, commonly dated to the first quarter of the 13th century, centers on the Arthurian hero Parzival (Percival in English) ...
'' **'' Willehalm''
Minnesang (; "love song") was a tradition of German lyric- and song-writing that flourished in the Middle High German period (12th to 14th centuries). The name derives from '' minne'', the Middle High German word for love, as that was ''Minnesangs m ...
* Friedrich von Hausen *
Henry VI, Holy Roman Emperor Henry VI (German language, German: ''Heinrich VI.''; November 1165 – 28 September 1197), a member of the Hohenstaufen dynasty, was King of Germany (King of the Romans) from 1169 and Holy Roman Emperor from 1191 until his death. From 1194 he was ...
* Heinrich von Veldeke * Albrecht von Johansdorf *
Hartmann von Aue Hartmann von Aue, also known as Hartmann von Ouwe, (born ''c.'' 1160–70, died ''c.'' 1210–20) was a German knight and poet. With his works including '' Erec'', '' Iwein'', '' Gregorius'', and '' Der arme Heinrich'', he introduced the Arthu ...
* Heinrich von Morungen * Reinmar von Hagenau *
Walther von der Vogelweide Walther von der Vogelweide (; ) was a Minnesänger who composed and performed love-songs and political songs ('' Sprüche'') in Middle High German. Walther has been described as the greatest German lyrical poet before Goethe; his hundred or s ...
*
Wolfram von Eschenbach Wolfram von Eschenbach (; – ) was a German knight, poet and composer, regarded as one of the greatest epic poets of medieval German literature. As a Minnesinger, he also wrote lyric poetry. Life Little is known of Wolfram's life. Ther ...


Late MHG 1230–1350

Narrative verse in various genres *
Kudrun ''Kudrun'' (sometimes known as the ''Gudrunlied'' or ''Gudrun''), is an anonymous Middle High German Germanic heroic legend, heroic epic. The poem was likely composed in either Austria or Bavaria around 1250. It tells the story of three generatio ...
* Ulrich von Lichtenstein, ''Frauendienst'' * Konrad von Würzburg ** ''Der Welt Lohn'' ** ''Engelhard'' ** ''Herzmäre'' ** ''Trojanerkrieg'' * Rudolf von Ems ** ** ''Weltchronik'' *
Der Stricker Der Stricker is the pseudonym of a 13th-century Middle High German itinerant poet whose real name has been lost to history. His name, which means "The Knitter," may indicate he was a commoner; he was likely from Franconia but later worked in Austri ...
*Wernher der Gartenære, ''Meier Helmbrecht'' * The
Dietrich von Bern Dietrich von Bern is the name of a character in Germanic heroic legend who originated as a legendary version of the Ostrogothic king Theodoric the Great. The name "Dietrich", meaning "Ruler of the People", is a form of the Germanic name "Theodor ...
cycle * Ortnit * Wolfdietrich Minnesang & Spruchdichtung * Heinrich von Meissen (Frauenlob) * Hugo von Montfort * Konrad von Würzburg * Neidhart *Der
Tannhäuser Tannhäuser (; ), often stylized "The Tannhäuser", was a German Minnesinger and traveling poet. Historically, his biography, including the dates he lived, is obscure beyond the poetry, which suggests he lived between 1245 and 1265. His name ...
* Ulrich von Liechtenstein *
Johannes Hadlaub Johannes Hadlaub (fl. 1300, d. before 1340) was one of the Minnesingers whose works are recorded in ''Codex Manesse''. He was a citizen of Zürich Zurich (; ) is the list of cities in Switzerland, largest city in Switzerland and the cap ...
Religious writing *
Meister Eckhart Eckhart von Hochheim ( – ), commonly known as Meister Eckhart (), Master Eckhart or Eckehart, claimed original name Johannes Eckhart,
* Mechthild von Magdeburg


Important collective manuscripts

Collective manuscripts (German, ), which combine works from a variety of different authors and genres, are a major source of MHG texts. The following are some of the most significant such manuscripts: * Vorau Manuscript, late 12th century — biblical and historical narratives, religious lyrics * Kleine Heidelberger Liederhandschrift, — Minnesang *Riedegg Manuscript, — Arthurian romance, short narrative, Minnesang, Dietrich epics *
Codex Manesse The Codex Manesse (also or Pariser Handschrift) is a (a German term for a manuscript containing songs) which is the single most comprehensive source of Middle High German ''Minnesang'' poetry. It was written and illustrated manuscript, illustr ...
(Große Heidelberger Liederhandschrift), — Minnesang * Weingarten Manuscript, first quarter of the 14th Century — Minnesang * Jenaer Liederhandschrift, mainly Spruchdichtung, with melodies * Michael de Leone, ''Hausbuch'', — short narratives. Minnesang * Ambraser Heldenbuch, 1504–1516 — Arthurian romances, heroic epics, Dietrich epics, short narratives.


See also

*
Old High German literature Old High German literature refers to literature written in Old High German, from the earliest texts in the 8th century to the middle of the 11th century. Scope The term "literature" as it is used in connection with Old High German has a broader s ...
* Baroque German literature *
History of the German language The appearance of the German language begins in the Early Middle Ages with the High German consonant shift. Old High German, Middle High German, and Early New High German span the duration of the Holy Roman Empire. The 19th and 20th centuries s ...


References


Sources

* * * * Published in English as: * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


External links


Bibliotheca Augustana
— Extensive collection of MHG texts, arranged by century. * . An extensive online anthology with translations into Modern German. {{German literature