Maxakalí language

Maxakalí (''Tikmũũn yĩy ax'', ''Mãxakani yĩy ax'') is a Maxakalían language spoken in four villages in Minas Gerais, Brazil, by more than 2,000 people.

Dialects

No dialectal differences are known. Extinct varieties such as Kapoxó, Kumanaxó, Makuní, Panháme, and the 19th century "Maxakalí", which were sometimes taken to be dialects of Maxakalí, are now generally considered to represent a distinct variety of the Maxakalían family, very close to Ritual Maxakalí. Curt Nimuendaju collected a wordlist of a variety known as ''Mašakarí/Monačóbm'' in 1939, which was shown by Araújo (1996) to be an early attestion of Maxakalí.

Spoken Maxakalí is different from the variety used in the Maxakalí ritual songs, Ritual Maxakalí, though both are classified as Maxakalían languages.

Distribution

Maxakalí was originally spoken in the Mucuri River, Itanhém River, and Jequitinhonha River areas. Today, Maxakalí is found in four main communities (''aldeias'') of Minas Gerais, with a total ethnic population of about 2,000:

*Pradinho (Maxakalí name: ''Pananiy''), in Bertópolis, Minas Gerais
*Água Boa (Maxakalí name: ''Kõnãg Mai'' or ''Akmamo''), in Santa Helena de Minas, Minas Gerais
*Aldeia Verde (Maxakalí name: ''Apne Yĩxux''), in Ladainha, Minas Gerais
*Cachoeirinha (Maxakalí name: ''Ĩmmoknãg''), in Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais

Old Machacari is attested from the 19th century. Reported varieties include Monoxó, Makoni, Kapoxó, Kumanaxó, and Panhame. After the dispersion of its speakers in the 1750s, they lived between the upper Mucuri River and São Mateus River (near the present-day city of Teófilo Otoni, Minas Gerais), possibly up to Jequitinhonha in the north to the Suaçuí Grande River, a tributary of the Doce River, in the south. After 1750, the southward migration of the Botocudos forced the Machacari to seek refuge in Portuguese settlements on the Atlantic coast (in an area ranging from the mouth of the Mucuri River to the Itanhaém River), in Alto dos Bois (near Minas Novas), and in Peçanha. According to Saint-Hilaire (2000: 170), the Monoxó lived in Cuyaté (Doce River, near the mouth of the Suaçuí Grande River) probably around 1800, before seeking refuge in Peçanha. At the beginning of the 19th century, the Panhame and other Maxakali groups allied with the Portuguese to fight the Botocudos.

Modern Maxakali (called Monaxobm by Curt Nimuendajú) is distinct from Old Machacari. It was historically spoken from the Mucuri River valley up to the headwaters of the Itanhaém River in Minas Gerais.

Phonology

Maxakalí has ten vowels, including five oral vowels and their nasal counterparts. In the table below, their orthographic representation is given in angle brackets.

Vowels

Silva (2020) describes two nasal spread processes which affect vowels.

Vowel lowering

According to Silva (2020), all vowels except /a ã/ have lowered allophones.

The vowels /ɛ ɛ̃ i ĩ ɨ ɨ̃ u ũ/ are lowered to � æ̃ ɪ ɪ̃ ɨ ɨ̃ ʊ ʊ̃ respectively, preceding a palatal coda. Examples include ''tex ~ tehex'' �t̪æj ~ t̪æˈɦæj‘rain’, ''yẽy'' �ɲæ̃j‘to shut up, to be silent’, ''pix'' �pɪj‘wash (''realis'')’, ''mĩy'' �mɪ̃j‘make (''realis'')’, ''kux'' �kɨ̞j‘to end; forehead’, ''mũy'' �mɨ̞̃j̃‘to hold, to grab (''irrealis'')’, ''tox'' �t̪ʊj ~ ˈt̪uwɪ‘long’, ''nõy'' �n̪ʊ̃j‘other; same-sex sibling’.

The vowels /ɨ ɨ̃ u ũ/ are further lowered to � ɘ̃ o õ respectively, preceding a velar coda, as in ''tuk'' �t̪ɘɰ‘to grow up’, ''yũmũg'' �ɨˈ̃mɘ̃ɰ̃‘to know, to understand, to learn’, ''ponok'' uˈd̪oɰ‘white’, ''mõg'' �mõɰ̃‘to go (''realis'')’. The front vowels /ɛ ɛ̃ i ĩ/ are never followed by a surface velar coda, because underlying velar codas are palatalized to palatal codas in this environment.

In addition, /ɨ̃/ surfaces as �̃word-finally, as in ''yõgnũ'' �õɰ̃ŋ̞̊ˈn̪ɘ̃ʔ‘it is mine’, ''xõnnũ'' �ũːˈn̪ɘ̃ʔ‘son! (''vocative'')’, ''nũ'' �n̪ɘ̃ʔ‘this; to come (''irrealis'').

Backing of /a ã/

The vowels /a ã/ are backed to � ɑ̃preceding a coronal (dental or palatal) coda. Examples include ''put(ah)at'' ɨˈt̪(ɑɦ)ɑə̯‘road’, ''n(ãh)ãn'' �n̪(ɑ̃ɦ)ɑ̃ə̯̃‘achiote’, ''hax'' �hɑj‘smell, to smell’, ''gãx'' �ɡɑ̃j‘angry’.

The vowels /a ã/ are backed and rounded in open syllables following a labial onset, as in ''kopa'' uˈpɒʔ‘inside’, ''hõmã'' ũˈmɒ̃ʔ‘long ago’.

Consonants

The nasals n̪ ɲhave been analyzed as allophones of /b d̪ dʑ/ preceding nasal nuclei, but the contrast between /m n̪ ɲ/ and /b d̪ dʑ/ is emerging in Portuguese borrowings and in diminutives.

In the coda position, only the place of articulation is contrastive, the possibilities being labial (orthographic ''-p ~ -m''), dental (''-t ~ -n''), palatal (''-x ~ -y''), and velar (''-k ~ -g''). The typical realization of the codas involves prevocalization, the consonantal element itself being optional.

Absence of fricatives and nasals

The World Atlas of Language Structures claims that Maxakalí has no contrastive fricative or nasal consonants, citing "Gudschinski et al. 1970". It is important to note that WALS did not consider to be a true fricative in this judgement. The phonological status of the nasal consonants is ambiguous; Silva (2020) argues that in modern Maxakalí they are becoming contrastive through phonologization, even though until recently nasal consonants occurred only as allophones of voiced obstruents.

Syntax

Word order

The most common word order in Maxakalí is SOV.

Pronominal forms and morphosyntactic alignment

Most clause types in Maxakalí are characterized by the ergative–absolutive morphosyntactic alignment. The agents of transitive verbs are marked by the ergative postposition ''te'', whereas the patients of transitive verbs and the intransitive subjects are unmarked. Absolutive pronominal participants are expressed by person prefixes; ergative pronominal participants take special forms upon receiving the ergative postposition ''te''. The same forms are found with other postpositions; furthermore, ''ã'' and ''xa'' occur as the irregular inflected forms of the dative postposition ''pu'' in the first person singular and in the second person, respectively.

Morphology

Mood inflection

Maxakalí verbs inflect for mood. The realis mood is the most common one, whereas the irrealis mood is used in imperative and purpose clauses. The morphological exponence of the mood inflection follows one of at least 7 patterns.

Lexicon

Verbal number

Some verbs form number pairs, whereby the choice of the verb depends on the number of the absolutive participant (i.e., the subject of an intransitive verb or the patient of a transitive verb). The noun phrase which encodes the participant does not receive any overt marking.

Subject number

Patient number

Noun compounding

Maxakalí nouns readily form compounds, here are some examples:

Vocabulary

Maxakalí has a number of lexical loans from one of the Língua Geral varieties, such as ''ãmãnex'' ‘priest’, ''tãyũmak'' ‘money’, ''kãmãnok'' ‘horse’, ''tapayõg'' ‘Black man’.

Loanwords from Brazilian Portuguese are extremely numerous. Examples include ''kapex'' ‘coffee’, ''komenok'' ‘blanket’, ''kapitõg'' ‘captain’, ''pẽyõg'' ‘beans’, ''mug'' ‘bank’, ''tenemiyam'' ‘TV’ (borrowed from Portuguese ''café'', ''cobertor'', ''capitão'', ''feijão'', ''banco'', ''televisão'').

See also

*Ritual Maxakalí language
* Maxakalí Sign Language

References

External links

* Proel
Lengua Mashakalí

Maxakalí–English grammar and dictionary
* Information o
Maxakalí
at Etnolinguistica.Org's Catalogue of South American Languages

{{DEFAULTSORT:Maxakali Language
Maxakalían languages
Indigenous languages of South America
Indigenous languages of Eastern Brazil