Matchgirls' Strike
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In July 1888 the women and teenage girls working at the Bryant & May match factory in
Bow, London Bow () is a district in East London, England and is in the London Borough of Tower Hamlets. It is an inner-city suburb located east of Charing Cross. Historic counties of England, Historically in Middlesex, it became part of the County of L ...
, England went on strike. At first, the strikers were protesting the dismissal of a worker after employees had refused a demand from Bryant & May management to repudiate an article on terrible working conditions at the factory. When management promised to rehire the fired worker, the strikers continued the
industrial action Industrial action (British English) or job action (American English) is a temporary show of dissatisfaction by employees—especially a strike or slowdown or working to rule—to protest against bad working conditions or low pay and to increas ...
to bargain for a cessation of unfair deductions from pay and for other improvements to working conditions. With the help of social activist
Annie Besant Annie Besant (; Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was an English socialist, Theosophy (Blavatskian), theosophist, freemason, women's rights and Home Rule activist, educationist and campaigner for Indian nationalism. She was an arden ...
, they succeeded. Following the strike's success, the Union of Women Matchmakers (later the
Matchmakers' Union The Matchmakers' Union (founded as The Union of Women Matchmakers) was a British trade union formed in 1888 following the successful Matchgirls' strike. On its creation, it was the largest union of women and girls in the country, and inspired a wa ...
) was formed later in 1888. From its creation, it was the largest union of women and girls in the country, and inspired a wave of collective organising among industrial workers.


Background


Match making

In the late nineteenth century matches were made using sticks of poplar or Canadian
pine A pine is any conifer tree or shrub in the genus ''Pinus'' () of the family Pinaceae. ''Pinus'' is the sole genus in the subfamily Pinoideae. ''World Flora Online'' accepts 134 species-rank taxa (119 species and 15 nothospecies) of pines as cu ...
wood, twice the length of the finished product. These were secured into frames holding approximately 4,000. Both ends of the sticks were dipped into
sulphur Sulfur (American spelling and the preferred IUPAC name) or sulphur (English in the Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth spelling) is a chemical element; it has Symbol (chemistry), symbol S and atomic number 16. It is abundance of the chemical ...
and then into a composition of
white phosphorus White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus, or simply tetraphosphorus (P4) is an allotrope of phosphorus. It is a translucent waxy solid that quickly yellows in light (due to its photochemical conversion into red phosphorus), and impure white phospho ...
(also known as yellow phosphorus),
potassium chlorate Potassium chlorate is the inorganic compound with the molecular formula KClO3. In its pure form, it is a white solid. After sodium chlorate, it is the second most common chlorate in industrial use. It is a strong oxidizing agent and its most impor ...
, antimony sulphide, powdered glass and colouring. The level of white phosphorus in the match varied; in 1899 a government report stated that in the UK it was between six and seven per cent, while a
Royal Economic Society The Royal Economic Society (RES) is a professional association and learned society that promotes the study of economics. Originally established in 1890 as the British Economic Association, it was incorporated by royal charter on 2 December 1902. ...
report of 1902 put the figure at "usually about five; sometimes as much as ten per cent". Experienced workers could finish 1,400 frames in a ten-hour shift, which created ten million matches. Once the double-ended matches had been dried in ovens, they were placed in a machine to halve them into single matches. They were packed into boxes of a hundred and these then tied into bundles of twelve. Those involved in dipping the matches were usually male; women dominated the workforce involved in the remainder of the process. The inclusion of sulphur—nicknamed ''brimstone''—was one of the reasons early matches were called ''lucifers''; although they were also called ''congreves''. Lucifer matches could be ignited on any surface where
friction Friction is the force resisting the relative motion of solid surfaces, fluid layers, and material elements sliding against each other. Types of friction include dry, fluid, lubricated, skin, and internal -- an incomplete list. The study of t ...
could be created with the strike. In the 1840s
red phosphorus Red phosphorus is an Allotropes of phosphorus, allotrope of phosphorus. It is an amorphous polymeric red solid that is stable in air. It can be easily converted from white phosphorus under light or heating. It finds applications as matches and fir ...
was discovered, which was more stable when exposed to the air. This meant matches could be made without any phosphorus, with a striking surface on the box that contained red phosphorus. In 1897 there were 4,152 people working in 25 match-making factories in Britain, 2,658 of whom were adults, 1,492 were aged between 14 and 18, and 2 under the age of 14. Of the factories that produced matches, 23 of them used white phosphorus. They employed 3,134 people; 245 men and 1,276 women were involved in processes that included phosphorus, with the remainder employed in non-phosphorus roles. An occupational disease that affected those who worked with white phosphorus was phosphorus necrosis of the jaw, also known as phossy jaw; the condition is not associated with red phosphorus. Phossy jaw developed by inhalation of phosphorus vapour—particularly when the ingredient was heated—which caused
osteonecrosis Avascular necrosis (AVN), also called osteonecrosis or bone infarction, is death of bone tissue due to interruption of the blood supply. Early on, there may be no symptoms. Gradually joint pain may develop, which may limit the person's abili ...
of the jaw bone. This manifested itself in, initially, toothaches and flu-like symptoms, then tooth loss, abscesses, swelling of the gums, the formation of
fistula In anatomy, a fistula (: fistulas or fistulae ; from Latin ''fistula'', "tube, pipe") is an abnormal connection (i.e. tube) joining two hollow spaces (technically, two epithelialized surfaces), such as blood vessels, intestines, or other h ...
and
necrosis Necrosis () is a form of cell injury which results in the premature death of cells in living tissue by autolysis. The term "necrosis" came about in the mid-19th century and is commonly attributed to German pathologist Rudolf Virchow, who i ...
of the jaw. Mortality was reported in around 20 per cent of cases.


Bryant & May

The
match A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically, matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by friction generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. Wooden matc ...
-making company Bryant & May was formed in 1843 by two
Quakers Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestantism, Protestant Christian set of Christian denomination, denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally ...
, William Bryant and Francis May, to trade in general merchandise. In 1850 the company entered into a relationship with the Swedish matchmaker Johan Edvard Lundström in order to capture part of the market of the 250 million matches used in Britain each day. In 1850 the company sold 231,000 boxes of matches; by 1855 this had risen to 10.8 million boxes and to 27.9 million boxes in 1860. In 1880 the company began exporting their goods; in 1884 they became a publicly-listed company. Dividends of 22.5 per cent in 1885 and 20 per cent in 1886 and 1887 were paid. In 1861 Bryant relocated the business to a three-acre site, on Fairfield Road, Bow,
east London East London is the part of London, England, east of the ancient City of London and north of the River Thames as it begins to widen. East London developed as London Docklands, London's docklands and the primary industrial centre. The expansion of ...
. In the 1880s Bryant & May employed nearly 5,000 people, most of them female and Irish, or of Irish descent, although the numbers varied with the seasonal fluctuations of the market; by 1895 the figure was 2,000 people, of which between 1,200 and 1,500 were women and girls. The matchboxes were made through domestic outwork under a
sweating system A sweatshop or sweat factory is a cramped workplace with very poor and/or illegal working conditions, including little to no breaks, inadequate work space, insufficient lighting and ventilation, or uncomfortably or dangerously high or low temperat ...
. Such a system was preferred because the workers were not covered under the
Factory Acts The Factory Acts were a series of acts passed by the Parliament of the United Kingdom beginning in 1802 to regulate and improve the conditions of industrial employment. The early acts concentrated on regulating the hours of work and moral wel ...
. Such workers received 2 to 2 
penny A penny is a coin (: pennies) or a unit of currency (: pence) in various countries. Borrowed from the Carolingian denarius (hence its former abbreviation d.), it is usually the smallest denomination within a currency system. At present, it is ...
(d) per gross of boxes. The workers had to provide glue and string from their own funds. The workers were paid different rates for completing a ten-hour day, depending on the type of work undertaken. The frame-fillers were paid 1 
shilling The shilling is a historical coin, and the name of a unit of modern currency, currencies formerly used in the United Kingdom, Australia, New Zealand, other British Commonwealth countries and Ireland, where they were generally equivalent to 1 ...
(s) per 100 frames completed; the cutters received 2 d for three gross of boxes, and the packers got 1s 9d per 100 boxes wrapped up. Those under 14 years-of-age received a weekly wage of about 4 s. Most workers were lucky if they took the full amounts home, as a series of fines were levied by the foremen, with the money deducted directly from wages. The fines included 3 d for having dirty feet—many of the workers were bare-footed as shoes were too expensive—or having an untidy workbench or talking; 5 d was deducted for being late; and a shilling for having a burnt match on the workbench. The women and girls involved in boxing up the matches had to pay the boys who brought them the frames from the drying ovens and had to supply their own glue and brushes. One girl who dropped a tray of matches was fined 6 d. Bryant & May were aware of
phossy jaw Phossy jaw, formally known as phosphorus necrosis of the jaw, was an occupational disease affecting those who worked with white phosphorus (also known as ''yellow phosphorus'') without proper safeguards. It is also likely to occur as the result ...
. If a worker complained of having toothache, they were told to have the teeth removed immediately or be sacked.


Political activism

The matchmakers had been involved in organised political action in the 1870s and 1880s. An attempt to introduce a tax on matches in April 1871 was strongly opposed by the match makers and was criticised in the national press. The day after a mass-meeting at
Victoria Park, London Victoria Park may refer to: Places Australia * Victoria Park Nature Reserve, a protected area in Northern Rivers region, New South Wales * Victoria Park, Adelaide, a park and racecourse * Victoria Park, Brisbane, a public park and former gol ...
, up to 10,000 match makers— mostly girls and women between the ages of thirteen and twenty—marched to the
Houses of Parliament The Palace of Westminster is the meeting place of the Parliament of the United Kingdom and is located in London, England. It is commonly called the Houses of Parliament after the House of Commons and the House of Lords, the two legislative ch ...
to present a petition. They were harassed by police on the way, who unsuccessfully tried to block their way. ''
The Manchester Guardian ''The Guardian'' is a British daily newspaper. It was founded in Manchester in 1821 as ''The Manchester Guardian'' and changed its name in 1959, followed by a move to London. Along with its sister paper, ''The Guardian Weekly'', ''The Guardi ...
'' described that "policemen, strong in their sense of officialism, and bullying in their strength, approached the verge of brutality".
Queen Victoria Victoria (Alexandrina Victoria; 24 May 1819 – 22 January 1901) was Queen of the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland from 20 June 1837 until Death and state funeral of Queen Victoria, her death in January 1901. Her reign of 63 year ...
wrote to the
prime minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
,
William Gladstone William Ewart Gladstone ( ; 29 December 1809 – 19 May 1898) was a British politican, starting as Conservative MP for Newark and later becoming the leader of the Liberal Party. In a career lasting over 60 years, he was Prime Minister ...
, to protest about the tax and the day following the march, the proposed tax was withdrawn. The matchmakers went on strike in 1881, 1885 and 1886 over low wages and the punitive fine structure. The actions were all unsuccessful. The historian Lowell Satre considers that the match makers were more concerned over pay and the fines than they were about safety.


Strike

Sarah Chapman led the strike The working conditions in the
match A match is a tool for starting a fire. Typically, matches are made of small wooden sticks or stiff paper. One end is coated with a material that can be ignited by friction generated by striking the match against a suitable surface. Wooden matc ...
factory had caused great discontent: up to fourteen-hour workdays, poor pay (made far worse in 1888 by a poor harvest which caused hours to be drastically reduced), unjust fines, having no clean area to eat, and the severe health complications of working with allotropes of
white phosphorus White phosphorus, yellow phosphorus, or simply tetraphosphorus (P4) is an allotrope of phosphorus. It is a translucent waxy solid that quickly yellows in light (due to its photochemical conversion into red phosphorus), and impure white phospho ...
, which caused phosphorus necrosis also known as phosphorimus chronicus or
phossy jaw Phossy jaw, formally known as phosphorus necrosis of the jaw, was an occupational disease affecting those who worked with white phosphorus (also known as ''yellow phosphorus'') without proper safeguards. It is also likely to occur as the result ...
.Spartacus Educational. Social activist
Annie Besant Annie Besant (; Wood; 1 October 1847 – 20 September 1933) was an English socialist, Theosophy (Blavatskian), theosophist, freemason, women's rights and Home Rule activist, educationist and campaigner for Indian nationalism. She was an arden ...
and her friend
Herbert Burrows Herbert Burrows (12 June 1845 – 14 December 1922) was a British socialist activist. Early life Born in Redgrave, Suffolk, Burrows' father Amos was a former Chartism, Chartist leader. Burrows educated himself using Cassell's shilling handbooks, ...
became involved in the situation and published an article in her halfpenny weekly paper ''The Link'' on 23 June 1888. This article angered Bryant & May management, who then tried to get their workforce to sign a paper contradicting it, but the workers refused to do so. This caused management to dismiss a worker (on some other pretext), on or about 2 July 1888, which set off the strike. Approximately 1,400 women and girls refused to work by the end of the first day after the dismissal. Management quickly offered to reinstate the sacked employee but the women then demanded other concessions, particularly in relation to the unfair fines which were deducted from their wages. A deputation of women (
Sarah Chapman Sarah Chapman (later Dearman; 31 October 1862 – 27 November 1945) was a British trade unionist who was one of the leaders of the 1888 Bryant & May matchgirls' strike. Chapman and others involved in the strike have since been recognised as "pio ...
, Mary Cummings, and Mrs Naulls) went to management but was not satisfied by their response. By 6 July the whole factory had stopped work. That same day about 100 of the women went to see Besant and to ask for her assistance (It has often been said that she started or led the strike but she knew nothing of it until the deputation called to see her). She was at first concerned by the precipitate action they had taken and by the number of women who were now out of work with no means of support. Meetings were held by the strikers and Besant spoke at some of the meetings.
Charles Bradlaugh Charles Bradlaugh (; 26 September 1833 – 30 January 1891) was an English political activist and atheist. He founded the National Secular Society in 1866, 15 years after George Holyoake had coined the term "secularism" in 1851. In 1880, Br ...
, Member of Parliament (MP) spoke in parliament and a deputation of match women went there to meet three MPs on 11 July. The
London Trades Council The London Trades Council was an early labour organisation, uniting London's trade unionists. Its modern successor organisation is the Greater London Association of Trades (Union) Councils History Leading figures in the London trade union mov ...
became involved, and there was significant publicity. At first, management was firm, but the factory owner, Bryant, was a leading
Liberal Liberal or liberalism may refer to: Politics * Generally, a supporter of the political philosophy liberalism. Liberals may be politically left or right but tend to be centrist. * An adherent of a Liberal Party (See also Liberal parties by country ...
and nervous about the publicity. Besant helped at meetings with management and terms were formulated at a 16 July meeting, in which fines, deductions for the cost of materials and other unfair deductions would be abolished. Also, grievances could be taken straight to management without having to involve the foremen, who had prevented management from knowing of previous complaints. An important additional term was that meals were to be taken in a separate room, where the food would not be contaminated with phosphorus. These terms were accepted and the strike ended.


Consequences

Following the strike's success, the Union of Women Matchmakers (later the
Matchmakers' Union The Matchmakers' Union (founded as The Union of Women Matchmakers) was a British trade union formed in 1888 following the successful Matchgirls' strike. On its creation, it was the largest union of women and girls in the country, and inspired a wa ...
) was formed later in 1888. On its creation, it was the largest union of women and girls in the country, and inspired a wave of collective organising among industrial workers. In 1891 the
Salvation Army The Salvation Army (TSA) is a Protestantism, Protestant Christian church and an international charitable organisation headquartered in London, England. It is aligned with the Wesleyan-Holiness movement. The organisation reports a worldwide m ...
opened up its own match factory in the Bow district of London, using less toxic red phosphorus and paying better wages. Part of the reason behind this match factory was the desire to improve the conditions of home workers, including children, who dipped white phosphorus-based matches at home.Emsley (2000), 115–126. Several children had died from eating these matches. The Bryant & May factory received bad publicity from these events, and in 1901 they announced that their factory no longer used white phosphorus. The owners, Francis May and William Bryant, had started importing red-phosphorus based safety matches from
John Edvard Lundström John is a common English name and surname: * John (given name) * John (surname) John may also refer to: New Testament Works * Gospel of John, a title often shortened to John * First Epistle of John, often shortened to 1 John * Second Ep ...
, in Sweden, in 1850.Beaver (1985), Part 1: "Building a Business". However, Bryant & May's safety matches sales had increased 10-fold by 1855 and Lundström was unable to increase his production any further, so they bought his
British British may refer to: Peoples, culture, and language * British people, nationals or natives of the United Kingdom, British Overseas Territories and Crown Dependencies. * British national identity, the characteristics of British people and culture ...
patent A patent is a type of intellectual property that gives its owner the legal right to exclude others from making, using, or selling an invention for a limited period of time in exchange for publishing an sufficiency of disclosure, enabling discl ...
, and with his assistance, built a model safety match factory in Bow. They started using red phosphorus in 1855, but could not compete in price against the much cheaper white phosphorus-based matches; hence the use of
child labour Child labour is the exploitation of children through any form of work that interferes with their ability to attend regular school, or is mentally, physically, socially and morally harmful. Such exploitation is prohibited by legislation w ...
. The Salvation Army had the same problem; their own matches were initially three times the price of white phosphorus-based matches. They had some partial success because: many of their supporters refused to buy white phosphorus-based matches; they automated much of the match-making processes (but not box filling), thus bringing down costs; and the use of child labour in dangerous trades had been prohibited. But the factory still struggled to compete on price, and after 1898 the '' Salvation Army War Cry newspaper'' ceased to advertise their matches. Their last make-or-break advertisement was run on 24 February 1900, and the match factory finally closed and was taken over by Bryant & May on 26 November 1901.Emsley (2000), 125. In 1908 the
House of Commons The House of Commons is the name for the elected lower house of the Bicameralism, bicameral parliaments of the United Kingdom and Canada. In both of these countries, the Commons holds much more legislative power than the nominally upper house of ...
passed an Act prohibiting the use of white phosphorus in matches after 31 December 1910. This was the United Kingdom's implementation of the 1906 Berne Convention on the prohibition of white phosphorus in matches.


Popular culture

In 1966 the British actor Bill Owen collaborated with songwriter Tony Russell to create a musical about the strike, named '' The Matchgirls''. The strike was next featured in an episode in the second series of the
BBC The British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) is a British public service broadcaster headquartered at Broadcasting House in London, England. Originally established in 1922 as the British Broadcasting Company, it evolved into its current sta ...
's ''
Ripper Street ''Ripper Street'' is a British mystery drama television series set in Whitechapel in the East End of London starring Matthew Macfadyen, Jerome Flynn, Adam Rothenberg, and MyAnna Buring. It begins in 1889, six months after the infamous Jack t ...
'', originally aired on 11 November 2013, with various victims of the conditions in the factories seeking revenge on the parties involved. An event to commemorate the 125th anniversary was held in
Bishopsgate Bishopsgate was one of the eastern gates in London's former defensive wall. The gate's name is traditionally attributed to Earconwald, who was Bishop of London in the 7th century. It was first built in Roman times and marked the beginning o ...
, London in 2013. The matchgirls were featured during the "HerStory" video tribute to notable women on U2's tour in 2017 for the 30th anniversary of ''
The Joshua Tree ''The Joshua Tree'' is the fifth studio album by the Irish rock music, rock band U2. It was produced by Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno, and was released on 9 March 1987 by Island Records. In contrast to the ambient music, ambient experimentati ...
'' during a performance of "
Ultraviolet (Light My Way) "Ultraviolet (Light My Way)" is a song by Irish rock music, rock band U2. It is the tenth track from their seventh studio album ''Achtung Baby''. Ostensibly about love and dependency, the song also lends itself to religious interpretations, with l ...
" from the band's 1991 album ''
Achtung Baby ''Achtung Baby'' ( ) is the seventh studio album by the Irish rock music, rock band U2. It was produced by Daniel Lanois and Brian Eno, and was released on 18 November 1991 by Island Records. After criticism of their 1988 documentary film and ...
''. The children's novel ''Florence and the Mischievous Kitten'' by Megan Rix, published by
Puffin Books Puffin Books is a longstanding children's imprint of the British publishers Penguin Books. Since the 1960s, it has been among the largest publishers of children's books in the UK and much of the English-speaking world. The imprint now belongs to ...
in 2019, tells the story of the Bryant & May matchgirl Beth protesting in the summer of 1888 and her meeting with
Florence Nightingale Florence Nightingale (; 12 May 1820 – 13 August 1910) was an English Reform movement, social reformer, statistician and the founder of modern nursing. Nightingale came to prominence while serving as a manager and trainer of nurses during th ...
. The children's novel ''Billy and the Match Girl'' by
Paul Haston Paul Haston is a British writer based in Vancouver, British Columbia. He writes novels, short stories and screenplays across several genres including literary fiction, historical fiction and young adult. Novels include ''Rising of a Dead Moon'', ...
is about the Matchgirls Strike. In 2022 a fictionalized account of the origins of the strike was depicted in the
Netflix Netflix is an American subscription video on-demand over-the-top streaming service. The service primarily distributes original and acquired films and television shows from various genres, and it is available internationally in multiple lang ...
film ''
Enola Holmes 2 ''Enola Holmes 2'' is a 2022 mystery film and the sequel to the 2020 film '' Enola Holmes'', both of which star Millie Bobby Brown as the title character, the teenage sister of the already-famous Victorian-era detective Sherlock Holmes. It is t ...
''. Strike leader
Sarah Chapman Sarah Chapman (later Dearman; 31 October 1862 – 27 November 1945) was a British trade unionist who was one of the leaders of the 1888 Bryant & May matchgirls' strike. Chapman and others involved in the strike have since been recognised as "pio ...
was played by Hannah Dodd.


Commemoration

In 2022
English Heritage English Heritage (officially the English Heritage Trust) is a charity that manages over 400 historic monuments, buildings and places. These include prehistoric sites, a battlefield, medieval castles, Roman forts, historic industrial sites, Lis ...
announced that the Matchgirls' Strike would be commemorated with a
blue plaque A blue plaque is a permanent sign installed in a public place in the United Kingdom, and certain other countries and territories, to commemorate a link between that location and a famous person, event, or former building on the site, serving a ...
at the site of the former Bryant & May factory in Bow, London, later that year. The plaque was unveiled at Bow Quarter, Fairfield Road, Tower Hamlets on 5 July 2022 by actress
Anita Dobson Anita, Lady May (born 29 April 1949), known as Anita Dobson, is an English actress and singer. She is best known for playing Landlord, landlady Angie Watts in the BBC soap opera ''EastEnders'' from the show's inception in 1985 until 1988. She ac ...
and Sam Johnson, great-granddaughter of strike committee leader
Sarah Chapman Sarah Chapman (later Dearman; 31 October 1862 – 27 November 1945) was a British trade unionist who was one of the leaders of the 1888 Bryant & May matchgirls' strike. Chapman and others involved in the strike have since been recognised as "pio ...
.


See also

*
Albright and Wilson Albright may refer to: *Albright (surname) *Albright, Alberta, Canada *Albright, West Virginia, United States *Albright College, a liberal arts college located in Reading, Pennsylvania, United States *Albright–Knox Art Gallery, Buffalo, New York, ...
*
Youth activism Youth activism is the participation in community organizing for social change by persons between the ages of 15–24. Youth activism has led to a shift in political participation and activism. A notable shift within youth activism is the rise o ...


Notes and references


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External links

{{Commons category
matchwomensfestival
6 July 2012
Matchwomen's Festival 2018
30 June 2018 1888 in London 1888 in women's history 1888 labor disputes and strikes Bow, London History of the London Borough of Tower Hamlets July 1888 Labour disputes in the United Kingdom Manufacturing industry strikes Matches