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María López de Mendoza y Pacheco (–1531) was a Castilian revolutionary who led the
Revolt of the Comuneros The Revolt of the Comuneros (, "War of the Communities of Castile") was an uprising by citizens of Crown of Castile, Castile against the rule of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I and his administration between 1520 and 1521. At its hei ...
in the Kingdom of Toledo. Born into the House of Mendoza in the Kingdom of Granada, she was given a classical education and oversaw management of the palace of Alhambra. Her father, Íñigo López de Mendoza, a proponent of religious tolerance and secular authority against the
Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition () was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile and lasted until 1834. It began toward the end of ...
, arranged her to be married to Juan López de Padilla, an '' hidalgo'' from the Kingdom of Toledo. There she took over management of the Padilla estate, while her husband campaigned for the rights of the petty nobility against the foreign rule of Carlos I. Following the outbreak of the
Revolt of the Comuneros The Revolt of the Comuneros (, "War of the Communities of Castile") was an uprising by citizens of Crown of Castile, Castile against the rule of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I and his administration between 1520 and 1521. At its hei ...
in 1520, she attempted to get her brother elected as the
Archbishop of Toledo The Archdiocese of Toledo () is a Latin Church archdiocese of the Catholic Church located in Spain.
, but was blocked by another faction of the ''comuneros''. After the ''comunero'' defeat at the
Battle of Villalar The Battle of Villalar was a battle in the Revolt of the Comuneros fought on 23 April 1521 near the town of Villalar de los Comuneros, Villalar in Valladolid province, Habsburg Spain, Spain. The royalist supporters of Charles V, Holy Roman Emp ...
, her husband was executed and she subsequently took command of the revolt in Toledo. She drew popular support for the cause and oversaw the reinforcement of the city's defences, ultimately resulting in negotiations ending with the royalists granting Toledo generous concessions. When the royalists reneged on the agreed terms, Toledo revolted again. As royalists called for Pacheco's head, she fled the city in disguise. She went into exile in
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Featuring Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point in continental Europe, Portugal borders Spain to its north and east, with which it share ...
, where she died. She was denounced for insanity and
witchcraft Witchcraft is the use of Magic (supernatural), magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meanin ...
by contemporary Castilian chroniclers, while the Castilian state demolished her headquarters and salted the earth, leaving behind a monument to the defeat of the ''comuneros''. In the modern period, her legacy has been reinterpreted, depicting her as an early advocate of social equality and human rights.


Biography


Early life and family

María Pacheco was born , in the palace of the Alhambra, in the Kingdom of Granada. She was the daughter of Íñigo López de Mendoza, the Count of Tendilla, and Francisca Pacheco. Her mother died in 1507, while María was still a child. She was raised by her father, an intellectual of the Spanish Renaissance, who provided his daughter with an education. Taught by Hernán Núñez and Peter Martyr d'Anghiera, she was educated in the Latin and Greek languages, as well as mathematics, history, poetry and Christian scripture. She also studied the classical politics. By the time María entered her adolescence, the House of Mendoza was already losing its political and economic influence in Granada, in part as Mendoza was an opponent of the
Spanish Inquisition The Tribunal of the Holy Office of the Inquisition () was established in 1478 by the Catholic Monarchs of Spain, Catholic Monarchs, King Ferdinand II of Aragon and Queen Isabella I of Castile and lasted until 1834. It began toward the end of ...
. Despite their loyalty to Fernando V, which had cost them land holdings and significant military expenses, the Mendozas were largely snubbed by the monarch. Mendoza thus sought an alliance with the Padilla family, which commanded the
Order of Calatrava The Order of Calatrava (, ) was one of the Spanish military orders, four Spanish military orders and the first Military order (society), military order founded in Kingdom of Castile, Castile, but the second to receive papal approval. The papal bu ...
and presided over the , and which had declared its loyalty to Juana of Castile. Although López de Mendoza still considered himself loyal to Fernando, he shared the Padillas' fidelity to the House of Trastámara against the rising
House of Habsburg The House of Habsburg (; ), also known as the House of Austria, was one of the most powerful Dynasty, dynasties in the history of Europe and Western civilization. They were best known for their inbreeding and for ruling vast realms throughout ...
and a desire to protect the autonomy of the Kingdom of Toledo from the
Crown of Castile The Crown of Castile was a medieval polity in the Iberian Peninsula that formed in 1230 as a result of the third and definitive union of the crowns and, some decades later, the parliaments of the kingdoms of Kingdom of Castile, Castile and Kingd ...
. Pacheco herself took up this anti-Habsburg sentiment, as she considered the legitimacy of the
Spanish monarchy The monarchy of Spain or Spanish monarchy () is the constitutional form of government of Spain. It consists of a hereditary monarch who reigns as the head of state, being the highest office of the country. The Spanish monarchy is constitu ...
to be based in its attention to the welfare of the country, and particularly the
Spanish nobility The Spanish nobility are people who possess a title of nobility confirmed by the Spanish Ministry of the Presidency, Justice and Relations with the Cortes, as well as those individuals appointed to one of Spain's three highest orders of knightho ...
.


Marriage to Padilla

By 1509, Mendoza was already considering the formalisation of his alliance with the Padillas by marrying his daughter off to the family. As he had a tender love for María, and wanted to spare her the effects of her older sister's unhappy marriage, he wanted to ensure she was set up with a suitable partner. He found his desired match in Juan de Padilla. In November 1510, a
dowry A dowry is a payment such as land, property, money, livestock, or a commercial asset that is paid by the bride's (woman's) family to the groom (man) or his family at the time of marriage. Dowry contrasts with the related concepts of bride price ...
was finally agreed, on the condition that Pacheco renounce her inheritance to her husband. When López de Padilla finally arrived in Granada on 14 August 1511, Pacheco had not yet met her betrothed and was apparently apprehensive about the arranged marriage. The couple were officially engaged the following day, in a ceremony attended by the Padillas and Mendozas, as well as the royal treasurer. As all this came at a great expense to him, Mendoza requested that Fernando appoint him as tax administrator for the Kingdom of Granada, which would provide him with the means he thought necessary to provide his daughter with a good wedding, but the King rejected his request. In 1514, they began making preparations for the wedding; the expenses of the event weighed heavily on Mendoza, who increasingly resented Fernando for his lack of support. He was unable to provide his daughter with a silk wedding dress or gold jewellery, and requested that his guests dress modestly. He continued to request that Fernando help finance the event, but was repeatedly rebuffed, causing him great anxiety and financial stress, as he was forced to sell his jewellery and go into debt to "everyone in the city" in order to pay for the wedding. The wedding was finally held on 18 January 1515, in the middle of the winter. The wedding was attended by 150 people and Pacheco's fiancé was greeted by "everyone in the city who could ride a horse". Morisco officials from
Albaicín The Albaicín (), also spelled Albayzín (from ), is a neighbourhood of Granada, Spain. It is centered around a hill on the north side of the Darro (river), Darro River which passes through the city. The neighbourhood is notable for its historic ...
also blessed the event, as a sign of respect that the citizens of Granada had for Mendoza. He was keen to report this to Fernando, in a display of the success of his religious tolerance against Fernando's policy of religious persecution. After the wedding, Pacheco and her new husband left for Porcuna, in the Kingdom of Toledo. Although saddened by his daughter leaving, Mendoza was satisfied that she would be treated well by the Padillas. Not long after arriving in Porcuna, Padilla left to attend to business, leaving Pacheco in charge of the local commandery. Already experienced in management, having run the affairs at the Alhambra after her mother's death, Pacheco took over the Padilla family's enterprises. She also kept her father informed of his enemies' activities at King Fernando's court, and acted as an intermediary between the Mendozas and Padillas, placing her at the centre of the two families' plans and aspirations. Little documentary information of her activities exist in the years following her father's death in July 1515; during this time, she cultivated her influence in the Kingdom of Toledo, rising to a prominent position that eventually saw her in command of the city of Toledo.


Revolutionary leadership

Following the coronation of Carlos I as King of Castile, the Flemish Jean Sauvage was appointed as the country's
chancellor Chancellor () is a title of various official positions in the governments of many countries. The original chancellors were the of Roman courts of justice—ushers, who sat at the (lattice work screens) of a basilica (court hall), which separa ...
. The Padillas, who advocated for Toledan autonomy and were opponents of foreign rule, resisted the new administration. Juan de Padilla defended the rites of the '' hidalgos'' ( petty nobility) and the urban poor against the monarchy and the barons, gaining him substantial support in Toledo, where he led the
Revolt of the Comuneros The Revolt of the Comuneros (, "War of the Communities of Castile") was an uprising by citizens of Crown of Castile, Castile against the rule of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I and his administration between 1520 and 1521. At its hei ...
against the Crown. In January 1521, after the death of the Flemish William de Croÿ, the
Archbishop of Toledo The Archdiocese of Toledo () is a Latin Church archdiocese of the Catholic Church located in Spain.
, Pacheco seized the opportunity to promote a member of her own family to the position. Pacheco's own father had advocated for a strong secular authority over the Church and had advised his daughter on how to pursue this policy. She actively campaigned for the election of her brother , attempting to garner support before Carlos I was able to act against her. But a different faction of the ''comuneros'' opposed her moves and invited Antonio Osorio de Acuña, the Bishop of Zamora, to contest the election and limit Pacheco's power in Toledo. Although she feared Acuña's arrival would challenge her "uncontested authority", the Bishop offered an exchange, in which she would support his election bid in return for her husband being appointed as commander of the
Order of Santiago The Order of Santiago (; ) is a religious and military order founded in the 12th century. It owes its name to the patron saint of Spain, ''Santiago'' ( St. James the Greater). Its initial objective was to protect the pilgrims on the Way of S ...
. Despite their agreement, Acuña was ultimately unable to consolidate clerical power in the city. Meanwhile, Pacheco continued her movements to advance her family's interests in Toledo. After the defeat of the ''comuneros'' at the
Battle of Villalar The Battle of Villalar was a battle in the Revolt of the Comuneros fought on 23 April 1521 near the town of Villalar de los Comuneros, Villalar in Valladolid province, Habsburg Spain, Spain. The royalist supporters of Charles V, Holy Roman Emp ...
in April 1521, Pacheco's husband Juan de Padilla was executed by the royalist forces. Pacheco immediately began crafting her public appearances in order to sway Toledan public opinion further in her favour: she kept herself clothed in mourning dress, brought her son with her and carried a painting of her late husband as she passed through the city's streets. Her denunciation of her husband's execution for his defence of the city won her popular support, which secured her position as the city's leader. She seized the alcázar of Toledo, from which she appointed new officials, imposed taxes and oversaw the city's defences, ordering that church bells be melted down in order to make cannons. Unable to lead the revolt and raise her son at the same time, she sent him out of the city to be cared for by his uncle; he died two years later. Pacheco's leading role on the side of the ''comuneros'' contrasts with that of her brothers Antonio and Luis, who both fought on the side of the royalists in the Kingdom of Granada. Pacheco herself adhered to her family's legacy of resistance to foreign monarchs and maintained an intransigent commitment to the ''comunero'' cause, the latter of which saw her dubbed "La Valerosa" () by the historian Prudencio de Sandoval. Pacheco held the monarchy to be dependent on the support of the Castilian nobility and needed to maintain its patronage, or risk losing their support. She thus believed that Carlos ought to be compelled to uphold Castilian noble rites by armed resistance.


Defeat, exile and death

As Carlos brought more aristocrats over to the royalist side, the ''comuneros'' faced increasing demoralisation. Despite the tide of the conflict changing in favour of the royalists, Pacheco managed to rally Toledo into maintaining its resistance, even after the rest of Castile was pacified. From May 1521 to February 1522, she was the unquestioned leader of the city and was seen to have embodied the spirit of the ''comuneros''. In October 1521, the French invasion of Navarre forced the royalists to the negotiating table. Pacheco secured advantageous terms for Toledo's surrender, including the return of the Padillas' sequestered property and a royal allowance, the latter of which was petitioned for by her brother Luis. After the Navarre conflict ended, the ''comuneros'' feared that the royalists would go back on the terms won in October. By the beginning of 1522, royalists were calling for the terms to be renegotiated and for the "authority of His Majesty" to be preserved. Pacheco re-fortified Toledo, pledging not to disarm until Carlos himself ratified the original treaty. On
Candlemas Candlemas, also known as the Feast of the Presentation of Jesus Christ, the Feast of the Purification of the Blessed Virgin Mary, or the Feast of the Holy Encounter, is a Christian holiday, Christian feast day commemorating the presentation of ...
, the night of 2 February 1522, riots broke out after news broke that the Dutch Adriaan Florensz Boeyens had been elected as pope. Pacheco gave one final speech to the city from her balcony, proclaiming that the promised pardon had been rescinded by the royalists. After royalists began to call for Pacheco's head, the ''comuneros'' committed themselves to a last stand against the royalists. Pacheco herself fled the city, disguised as a peasant. Pacheco's sister and brother-in-law secured her escape to
Portugal Portugal, officially the Portuguese Republic, is a country on the Iberian Peninsula in Southwestern Europe. Featuring Cabo da Roca, the westernmost point in continental Europe, Portugal borders Spain to its north and east, with which it share ...
, where she fell into poverty and social isolation. While she earned a meager living as a Latin teacher, she repeatedly appealed to Carlos for amnesty, but was denied each time. María Pacheco ultimately died in her Portuguese exile, in 1531. Her body was buried in the Porto Cathedral.


Legacy

Following the defeat of the
Revolt of the Comuneros The Revolt of the Comuneros (, "War of the Communities of Castile") was an uprising by citizens of Crown of Castile, Castile against the rule of Charles V, Holy Roman Emperor, Charles I and his administration between 1520 and 1521. At its hei ...
, Habsburg rule was cemented in Castile. In Toledo, the ''comuneros'' headquarters were demolished, a monument condemning Pacheco's revolt was raised in the city centre, and salt was ploughed into the earth, preventing plants from growing in the Plaza de Padilla up into the 21st century. Pacheco has variously been depicted throughout history as either a hero and a villain. She was strongly disliked by contemporary chroniclers, due to her transgressions of traditional gender roles by taking up political and military command. Peter Martyr d'Anghiera described her the "husband of her husband" and depicted her as insane, while Alonzo de Santa Cruz alleged her to have been a practitioner of
witchcraft Witchcraft is the use of Magic (supernatural), magic by a person called a witch. Traditionally, "witchcraft" means the use of magic to inflict supernatural harm or misfortune on others, and this remains the most common and widespread meanin ...
; both of these interpretations were taken up by Antonio de Guevara. Historian Stephanie Fink De Backer highlighted her among other Castilian rebel women, such as Juana Pimentel, as well as the Castilian queens Isabel and Juana, as examples of exceptional women leaders of the
medieval period In the history of Europe, the Middle Ages or medieval period lasted approximately from the 5th to the late 15th centuries, similarly to the post-classical period of World history (field), global history. It began with the fall of the West ...
. Historian Temma Kaplan compared Pacheco and her husband to the Sikh leader
Guru Nanak Gurū Nānak (15 April 1469 – 22 September 1539; Gurmukhi: ਗੁਰੂ ਨਾਨਕ; pronunciation: , ), also known as ('Father Nanak'), was an Indian spiritual teacher, mystic and poet, who is regarded as the founder of Sikhism and is t ...
, and English levellers
John Lilburne John Lilburne (c. 161429 August 1657), also known as Freeborn John, was an English political Leveller before, during and after the English Civil Wars 1642–1650. He coined the term "'' freeborn rights''", defining them as rights with which e ...
and Elizabeth Lilburne, as examples of advocates of social equality and human rights during the
early modern period The early modern period is a Periodization, historical period that is defined either as part of or as immediately preceding the modern period, with divisions based primarily on the history of Europe and the broader concept of modernity. There i ...
.


References


Bibliography

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Further reading

* * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:Pacheco, Maria 1490s births 1531 deaths 16th-century rebels 16th-century Spanish nobility 16th-century Spanish women 16th-century women landowners 16th-century women rulers Castilian nobility Female military leaders Female revolutionaries House of Mendoza People from Granada People of the Revolt of the Comuneros Spanish female military personnel Spanish Renaissance people Women in 16th-century warfare Women in war in Spain