Manuel Polo y Peyrolón (1846–1918) was a

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writer, theorist, academic, and politician. He is best known as the author of five novels falling in between

romanticism Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic, literary, musical, and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century, and in most areas was at its peak in the approximate ...

and

realism Realism, Realistic, or Realists may refer to: In the arts * Realism (arts), the general attempt to depict subjects truthfully in different forms of the arts Arts movements related to realism include: *Classical Realism *Literary realism, a mov ...

; classified as part of

costumbrismo ''Costumbrismo'' (sometimes anglicized as costumbrism, with the adjectival form costumbrist) is the literary or pictorial interpretation of local everyday life, mannerisms, and customs, primarily in the Hispanic scene, and particularly in the 19t ...

, they are currently considered second-rate literature. As a philosopher he stuck to neo-

Thomism Thomism is the philosophical and theological school that arose as a legacy of the work and thought of Thomas Aquinas (1225–1274), the Dominican philosopher, theologian, and Doctor of the Church. In philosophy, Aquinas' disputed question ...

and focused mostly on confronting

Krausism Krausism is a doctrine named after the German philosopher Karl Christian Friedrich Krause (1781–1832) that advocates doctrinal tolerance and academic freedom from dogma. One of the philosophers of identity, Krause endeavoured to reconcile the i ...

. In education he represented Catholic

regenerationism Regenerationism ( es, Regeneracionismo) was an intellectual and political movement in late 19th century and early 20th century Spain. It sought to make objective and scientific study of the causes of Spain's decline as a nation and to propose rem ...

, fiercely pitted against the

Liberal Liberal or liberalism may refer to: Politics * a supporter of liberalism ** Liberalism by country * an adherent of a Liberal Party * Liberalism (international relations) * Sexually liberal feminism * Social liberalism Arts, entertainment and m ...

current. In politics he was active within

Carlism Carlism ( eu, Karlismo; ca, Carlisme; ; ) is a Traditionalism (Spain), Traditionalist and Legitimists (disambiguation), Legitimist political movement in Spain aimed at establishing an alternative branch of the House of Bourbon, Bourbon dynasty ...

; his career reached its peak during his 1896–1898 term in the

Congress of Deputies The Congress of Deputies ( es, link=no, Congreso de los Diputados, italic=unset) is the lower house of the Cortes Generales, Spain's legislative branch. The Congress meets in the Palace of the Parliament () in Madrid. It has 350 members ele ...

and his 1907-1915 terms in the

Senate A senate is a deliberative assembly, often the upper house or chamber of a bicameral legislature. The name comes from the ancient Roman Senate (Latin: ''Senatus''), so-called as an assembly of the senior (Latin: ''senex'' meaning "the e ...

Family and youth

There is little known about Polo's ancestors. His paternal forefathers were related to Aras de Alpuente, a town in the

Valencia province Valencia ( ca-valencia, València) is a province of Spain, in the central part of the autonomous Valencian Community. Of the province's over 2.5 million people (2018), one-third live in the capital, Valencia, which is also the capital of the au ...

; in the 17th century some Polos served there as local notaries. His father, Domingo Polo y Polo (died 1859), also originated from Aras. He worked as property registrar in

Belchite Belchite is a municipality and town in the province of Zaragoza, Spain, about 40 km southeast of Zaragoza. It is the capital of Campo de Belchite ''comarca'' (administrative region) and is located in a plain surrounded by low hills, the high ...

and according to his son he was among the founders of the Carlist daily '' La Esperanza''. During the

First Carlist War The First Carlist War was a civil war in Spain from 1833 to 1840, the first of three Carlist Wars. It was fought between two factions over the succession to the throne and the nature of the Spanish monarchy: the conservative and devolutionist su ...

he sided with the

legitimists The Legitimists (french: Légitimistes) are royalists who adhere to the rights of dynastic succession to the French crown of the descendants of the eldest branch of the Bourbon dynasty, which was overthrown in the 1830 July Revolution. They r ...

and served as secretary to general José María Arévalo y Reguero. Following the Carlist defeat he had to abandon his job and settled in Cañete, a village on the western slopes of

Montes Universales Montes Universales is a long mountain range in the southeastern end of the Iberian System. Its highest point is the 1,935 m high summit known as Caimodorro. The 1,830 m high Muela de San Juan is another important peak. Administratively, the Mon ...

, a southern ridge of

Sistema Ibérico The Iberian System ( es, Sistema Ibérico, ) is one of the major systems of mountain ranges in Spain. It consists of a vast and complex area of mostly relatively high and rugged mountain chains and massifs located in the central region of th ...

. Located in the Castillan

Province of Cuenca Cuenca is one of the five provinces of the autonomous community of Castilla-La Mancha. It is located in the eastern part of this autonomous community and covers 17,141 square km. It has a population of 203,841 inhabitants -- the least populated of ...

, the area bordered the region of

Aragón Aragon ( , ; Spanish and an, Aragón ; ca, Aragó ) is an autonomous community in Spain, coextensive with the medieval Kingdom of Aragon. In northeastern Spain, the Aragonese autonomous community comprises three provinces (from north to sout ...

and formed part of what was once known as Alto

Maestrazgo The Maestrazgo () or Maestrat () is a natural and historical mountainous region, located at the eastern end of the Sistema Ibérico mountain range, in Spain. It encompasses the north of the Autonomous Community of Valencia, in Castellón provinc ...

. Polo y Polo practiced as a local lawyer. Manuel's mother, María Peyrolón Lapuerta, was born in Aragon, on the other sides of the sierra slopes; she originated either from Calomarde or from Gea de Albarracin. The couple had at least two sons, Manuel and Florentino; María died during childbirth in 1853. Some time in the mid-1850s Domingo Polo developed very serious health problems and pledged that in case of recovery he would dedicate his life to God; indeed he later entered an unspecified religious order and became a friar. Since the mid-1850s Manuel and his younger brother were looked after by their maternal aunt Concepción. Spending most of his childhood and youth with relatives in

Gea de Albarracín Gea de Albarracín is a municipality located in the province of Teruel, Aragon, Spain. According to the 2004 census (INE INE, Ine or ine may refer to: Institutions * Institut für Nukleare Entsorgung, a German nuclear research center * Instit ...

, he considered himself a turolense and viewed Sierra de Albarracín as his "" (little homeland). He was brought up in a fervently Catholic environment and inherited a Traditionalist political outlook from his father; his first childhood lectures were Carlist booklets and periodicals. Following his early education in Albarracin, he frequented the institute in Valencia; exact dates are unclear, though most likely his college days were in the early 1860s. According to one source he majored in philosophy and literature at

Universidad Central The Central University (''Universidad Central'') is a private institution of higher education established 1966, whose two offices are at Bogotá, Colombia. It offers undergraduate and graduate programs in the areas of humanities, arts, economic a ...

Madrid Madrid ( , ) is the capital and most populous city of Spain. The city has almost 3.4 million inhabitants and a metropolitan area population of approximately 6.7 million. It is the second-largest city in the European Union (EU), an ...

and in civil and canon law at

Universidad de Valencia The University of Valencia ( ca-valencia, Universitat de València ; also known as UV) is a public research university located in the city of Valencia, Spain. It is one of the oldest surviving universities in Spain, and the oldest in the Vale ...

. Guided by Miguel Vicente Almazán, Manuel would later gain PhD laurels in philosophy. According to another author, he studied both law and literature in Valencia; none of the sources consulted provides the date of his graduation. Following a brief and temporary stint as assistant professor of metaphysics in Valencia in 1868–69, he returned to Aragón and successfully applied to Instituto de Segunda Enseñanza de

Teruel Teruel () is a city in Aragon, located in eastern Spain, and is also the capital of Teruel Province. It has a population of 35,675 in 2014 making it the least populated provincial capital in the country. It is noted for its harsh climate, with ...

, where he began teaching psychology, logic, and ethics in 1870. Manuel Polo y Peyrolón never married and had no children.

Novelist

Polo's first literary work, , appeared in 1873. Except that it was a collection of short stories instead of a

novel A novel is a relatively long work of narrative fiction, typically written in prose and published as a book. The present English word for a long work of prose fiction derives from the for "new", "news", or "short story of something new", itsel ...

, it revealed characteristics marking his later works: traditional themes, a simple plot and clear educational purpose, with narration set in the provincial milieu of

Sierra de Albarracín Sierra de Albarracín is a long mountain range in the southwestern end of the Sistema Ibérico, Iberian System. Its highest point is the 1,856 m high summit known as Sierra Alta. Description This mountain range is named after the town of Albarr ...

, painted with attention to detail and with a focus on local customs typical rather of an ethnographical study. All these features were developed in Polo's first novel, ''Los Mayos'' (1878), a rural love story intended as a praise of loyalty and fidelity and considered his best work, translated into Italian and German. The consecutive ones, (1884) and (1890) assumed a more militant tone, aimed against liberal and secular lifestyles. (1905) confronted the deeds of a young liberal with the virtues of a young Carlist, cast against the background of a small town undergoing the turbulent period of 1868–1876. The last of Polo's major literary works, (1906), revealed more threads of an adventure story; set during

Third Carlist War The Third Carlist War ( es, Tercera Guerra Carlista) (1872–1876) was the last Carlist War in Spain. It is sometimes referred to as the "Second Carlist War", as the earlier "Second" War (1847–1849) was smaller in scale and relatively trivial ...

, it was heavily based on wartime recollections of his brother Florentino. Polo's shorter stories remain scaled-down versions of his novels. Among his contemporaries Polo was appreciated usually by those sharing a similar traditional outlook, such as

Emilia Pardo Bazán Emilia Pardo Bazán y de la Rúa-Figueroa (16 September 185112 May 1921), countess of Pardo Bazán, was a Spanish novelist, journalist, literary critic, poet, playwright, translator, editor and professor. She is known for introducing naturalis ...

and his friends Marcelinó Menéndez y Pelayo and

José María de Pereda José María de Pereda (born 6 February 1833, Polanco, Cantabria – died 1 March 1906, Polanco) was a modern Spanish novelist, and a Member of the Royal Spanish Academy. Life Pereda was educated at the Institute Cántabro of Santander, whence ...

. A conservative literary review, '' Ilustración Católica'', identified him as a brilliant follower of

Fernán Caballero Fernán Caballero (24 December 1796 – 7 April 1877) was the pseudonym of Spanish novelist Cecilia Francisca Josefa Böhl de Faber y Ruiz de Larrea. She was daughter of German writer Johann Nikolaus Böhl von Faber and Spanish writer Frasquita ...

, classified his writings as a "" (family novel) and hailed his prose as "" (the restorer of the Castilian novel in modern times). Noted for authenticity "which does not disfigure reality", his

was appreciated as an antidote to naturalism – the trend he consciously opposed - and "the venom of

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". By favourably disposed contemporaries he was put next to Fernán Caballero, de Pereda,

Francisco Navarro Villoslada Francisco is the Spanish and Portuguese form of the masculine given name ''Franciscus''. Nicknames In Spanish, people with the name Francisco are sometimes nicknamed "Paco (name), Paco". Francis of Assisi, San Francisco de Asís was known as '' ...

, Julio Alarcón y Meléndez,

Juan Valera Juan Valera may refer to: * Juan Valera y Alcalá-Galiano (1824–1905), Spanish author, diplomat and politician * Juan Valera (footballer) (born 1984), Spanish footballer {{hndis, Valera, Juan ...

and padre Coloma; critics dubbed him a "" (literary monstrosity.) The limited popularity of Polo's works hardly outlived their author. Even in the early 20th century he was only marginally mentioned by historians of Spanish literature; later on he went into oblivion, though was occasionally acknowledged in anthologies. Today he is missing even in fairly detailed studies written either by Spanish of foreign scholars, though he is noted by some dictionaries. He is usually situated in between

and

, falling into the

(or ) trend, also a good representative of . It is noted that his conventional, meager plots can hardly support the weight of nagging moralising objectives, especially given the repetitive nature of his works. On the other hand, his novels are appreciated as inexhaustible sources of perfectly captured anecdotes and customs, few readers admitting even some charm. Apart from realism, he is credited for introducing new narrative techniques. He is also among the best-known authors contributing to

Carlism in literature On March 21, 1890, at a conference dedicated to the :es:Sitio de Bilbao (1874), siege of Bilbao during the Third Carlist War, Miguel de Unamuno delivered a lecture titled ''La última guerra carlista como materia poética''. It was probably the fir ...

from the legitimist perspective.

Scholar and philosopher

Polo taught psychology, logic, and ethics in the Teruel college for 9 years. Harassed for his pro-Carlist sympathies, he decided to leave Aragon. Following a successful application and selection process, he assumed the same chair at Instituto de Segunda Enseñanza in Valencia in 1879, where he kept teaching until the early 20th century. Member of Asociación de Catedráticos Numerarios, he was active in a number of Spanish and foreign scholarly institutions. His career was crowned in 1908, when he joined

Real Academia de la Historia The Real Academia de la Historia (RAH, 'Royal Academy of History') is a Spanish institution in Madrid that studies history " ancient and modern, political, civil, ecclesiastical, military, scientific, of letters and arts, that is to say, the di ...

. During his Valencia tenure Polo wrote textbooks for students of philosophy: ''Elementos de psicología'' (1879), ''Elementos de lógica'' (1880), ''Elementos de Ética'' (1880); ''Elementos de Ética o Filosofía Moral'' (1882), ''Elementos de Filosofía Moral'' (1889), ''Lógica elemental'' ( 1902) and ''Ética elemental'' (1902), in use also in other scholarly centres across the country. He did not develop any original philosophical contribution himself; apart from works on history and general overviews, Polo is known for confronting some trends forming the liberal educational mindset, especially

and

Darwinism Darwinism is a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others, stating that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural selection of small, inherited variations that ...

. His stance is classified as

neo-Thomist Neo-scholasticism (also known as neo-scholastic Thomism Accessed 27 March 2013 or neo-Thomism because of the great influence of the writings of Thomas Aquinas on the movement) is a revival and development of medieval scholasticism in Catholic the ...

or '' neocatolicismo'' in philosophy and as regeneracionismo político-educativo in pedagogy. Polo's repudiation of Krausism developed in the course of his teaching career and stemmed from his growing interest in pedagogy and education in general. During the last decades of the 19th century, Krausism became a philosophical powerhouse of liberal Spanish politics, represented mostly by Francisco Giner del Rios and Instituto Libre de Enseñanza. Its principal intellectual antagonist was Menendez y Pelayo. His friend Polo remained rather a proponent and did not construct his own anti-Krausian theory, though his vehemence gained him the description of "" (great enemy of Krausist barbarism), especially as Spanish Krausism, initially avoiding direct confrontation with the Church, later assumed a decisively challenging tone. Fiercely advocating Catholic integrity as a basis of public education, he nevertheless recognized the necessity of incorporating elements from the liberal mainstream; some scholars even maintain that Polo was completely integrated in the liberal system of education. Another characteristic feature of Polo's outlook was his position towards

evolutionism Evolutionism is a term used (often derogatorily) to denote the theory of evolution. Its exact meaning has changed over time as the study of evolution has progressed. In the 19th century, it was used to describe the belief that organisms deliberat ...

, though opinions on his stance differ. Some view it as an exemplary obscurantist Catholic reaction to scientific progress, dismissed as "" (involutionism, fundamentalism, traditionalism and reactionary ideology.) Some suggest that his neo-Thomism was not an abrupt rejection of advances produced by science, as Polo tried to work out a conciliatory approach. Though his stance on Darwinism is portrayed as "aggressive and intolerant attack", others consider it in line with scientific standards of the era, systematic and posing questions - like those related to hereditary transmission or variability patterns – which remained unanswered until the 1920s. A detailed study suggests that Polo engaged in the discourse not so much to challenge evolutionary theory, but to confront secularism which used it as a ram against the Spanish Catholic outlook.

Politician

Polo commenced his political career in 1870, speaking at local meetings in Sierra de Albarracín. During the Third Carlist War he supported the insurgents as an ojalatero, placed under police surveillance with most of his property embargoed. Facing restrictions and fearing for his life, he temporarily went into hiding; even following the Carlist defeat in 1876 he was harassed at his workplace in Teruel for a long time. In the 1880s he contributed to the legitimist cause mostly as a novelist, propagating Carlist virtues of his protagonists, and as a professor, lambasting liberal ideas disseminated by

Jews Jews ( he, יְהוּדִים, , ) or Jewish people are an ethnoreligious group and nation originating from the Israelites Israelite origins and kingdom: "The first act in the long drama of Jewish history is the age of the Israelites""T ...

and

freemasonry Freemasonry or Masonry refers to fraternal organisations that trace their origins to the local guilds of stonemasons that, from the end of the 13th century, regulated the qualifications of stonemasons and their interaction with authorities ...

. In 1891 and 1893 he lost campaigns to

Cortes Cortes, Cortés, Cortês, Corts, or Cortès may refer to: People * Cortes (surname), including a list of people with the name ** Hernán Cortés (1485–1547), a Spanish conquistador Places * Cortes, Navarre, a village in the South border o ...

and was finally victorious in 1896. In parliament he focused on education, opposing Liberal secularisation plans and promoting local languages in schools. Following defeats in successive elections he resumed his parliamentary career as a senator in 1907, re-elected in 1910 and 1914. In the upper chamber he continued to defend the position of the Catholic Church, especially during the Ley del Candado crisis; he was somewhat acknowledged as a dangerous opponent by procedural gimmicks employed by his adversaries. Lambasting the others for compromising the party line, he himself engaged in secret talks with the

conservatives Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy that seeks to promote and to preserve traditional institutions, practices, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civilization i ...

. In the 1890s Polo emerged among the chief Valencian Carlists. He forged friendly relations with the Marquis of Cerralbo and a number of other national leaders, gradually becoming a pivotal figure. Personally introduced to Carlos VII, in 1901 he was considered a candidate for his personal secretary. Revealing interest in the emerging workers’ question he contributed to Acta de Loredan, published the official Carlist program and persuaded the claimant to re-organise the party, uniting the military and civil command chain. Fully aware of the need to modernise

Traditionalism Traditionalism is the adherence to traditional beliefs or practices. It may also refer to: Religion * Traditional religion, a religion or belief associated with a particular ethnic group * Traditionalism (19th-century Catholicism), a 19th–cen ...

, he appreciated the role of efficient party structures, building a dense network. In 1904 Polo was nominated chief of the Valencian branch. Personally intransigent, he was resented by other

Levantine Levantine may refer to: * Anything pertaining to the Levant, the region centered around modern Syria, Lebanon, Israel, Palestine, and Jordan, including any person from the Levant ** Syria (region), corresponding to the modern countries of the Lev ...

leaders, Manuel Simó Marín and Joaquín Llorens Fernandez. The conflict, fuelled by strong personalities, Polo's adamant leadership style and discrepancies between legitimists and , though Carlism is typically viewed as fanatical, in fact it has always been plagued by division between those opting for "malminorismo" and those preferring to "echarse al monte"; Polo tended to side with the latter. His intransigence is credited for preventing the party from amalgamation into ''Union Católica'', ''Lliga'' or other collaborative structures. Also on the national scene, bedeviled by intrigues among Carlist pundits, Polo's relations deteriorated, including those with Carlos VII and especially his wife Berthe de Rohan. He considered his resignation handed to the new Carlist king Jaime III a purely procedural gesture, and was shocked to see it accepted, though as a senator he was appointed to national executive, Junta Nacional Tradicionalista, in 1912. Manuel Polo y Peyrolon funeral

With no close family, surrounded by books, moths and butterflies, dedicated to completion of his massive memories, personally intolerant and acrimonious, by the end of his life Polo grew into a misanthrope and passed into living memory as a "grumpy old man". He became increasingly pessimistic as to the future of Traditionalism, highly skeptical of its political leaders and the claimant himself. At one point he considered himself close to

Integrism In politics, integralism, integrationism or integrism (french: intégrisme) is an interpretation of Catholic social teaching that argues for an authoritarian and anti- pluralist Catholic state, wherever the preponderance of Catholics within t ...

,Urcelay Alonso 2013, p. 17; this was a change compared to the 1890s, when he considered the Integrist secession a blessing for Carlism, see Jordi Canal, ''Las «muertes» y las «resurrecciones» del carlismo. Reflexiones sobre la escisión integrista de 1888'', n:''Ayer'' 38 (2000), p. 116 though until his death he remained loyal to the Carlist dynasty.

Works

Carlism and politics *
Ligera exposición doctrinal del credo católico tradicionalista
' (1892) *
Credo y Programa del Partido Carlista
' (1905) *
Anarquía fiera y mansa: folleto antiterrorista
' (1908) *
Memorias políticas (1870-1913)
' Catholicism and ethics *
Elementos de ética o filosofía moral
' (1882) *
León XIII y los católicos españoles
' (1883) *
Ética elemental
' (1883) *
Vida de León XIII: extracto de sus principales documentos públicos y relación de sus fiestas jubilares
' (1888) * ''La Madre de Don Carlos. Estudio crítico-biográfico'' (1906) Law and science *
Contra Darwin: supuesto parentesco entre el hombre y el mono
' (1881) *
Elementos de psicología
' (1889) *
Lógica elemental
(1902) *
La enseñanza española ante la ley y el sentido común: cuestiones pedagógicas
' (1908) *
Rudimentos del derecho
' (1911) Novels and tales *
Costumbres populares de la Sierra de Albarracín: cuentos originales
' (1876) *
Los Mayos: novela original de costumbres populares de la Sierra de Albarracín
' (1879) *
Sacramento y concubinato: novela de costumbres contemporáneas
' (1884) *
Quien mal anda, ¿cómo acaba?
' (1890) *
Manojico de cuentos
' (1895) *
Pepinillos en vinagre
' (1891) *
El guerrillero: novela tejida con retazos de la historia militar carlista
' (1906)

Footnotes

External links

Polo at mcnbiografias

Polo at the Cortes service

Polo at Gran Enciclopedia Aragonesa

Credo y programa del Partido Carlista by Polo

contemporary Carlist propaganda video
{{DEFAULTSORT:Polo y Peyrolon, Manuel 1846 births 1918 deaths People from the Province of Cuenca Spanish Roman Catholics Carlists Members of the Congress of Deputies of the Spanish Restoration Members of the Senate of Spain Politicians from Castilla–La Mancha Spanish essayists 19th-century Spanish historians 19th-century Spanish lawyers Lepidopterists 20th-century Spanish philosophers 19th-century Spanish philosophers Spanish scholars Spanish male novelists Writers from Castilla–La Mancha Roman Catholic writers