Manuel Azaña Díaz (; 10 January 1880 – 3 November 1940) was a Spanish politician who served as
Prime Minister
A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
of the
Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
(1931–1933 and 1936), organizer of the Popular Front in 1935 and the last
President of the Republic (1936–1939). He was the most prominent leader of the Republican cause during the
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
of 1936–1939.
A published author in the 1910s, he stood out in the
pro-Allies camp during World War I. He was sharply critical towards the
Generation of '98, the reimagination of the Spanish Middle Ages, Imperial Spain and the 20th century yearnings for a praetorian refurbishment of the country. Azaña followed instead the examples of the French Enlightenment and the
Third French Republic, and took a political quest for democracy in the 1920s while defending the notion of homeland as the "democratic equality of all citizens towards the law" that made him embrace
republicanism
Republicanism is a political ideology that encompasses a range of ideas from civic virtue, political participation, harms of corruption, positives of mixed constitution, rule of law, and others. Historically, it emphasizes the idea of self ...
.
After the Proclamation of the Second Spanish Republic in April 1931, Azaña became Minister of War of the Provisional Government and enacted
military reform, looking to develop a modern armed forces with fewer army officers. He later became Prime Minister in October 1931.
The
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
broke out while he was
President of Spain. With the defeat of the Republic in 1939, he fled to France, resigned from office, and died in exile only a year later at age 60.
Early career
Born into a wealthy family, Manuel Azaña Díaz was orphaned at a very young age. He studied in the
Universidad Complutense, the
Cisneros Institute and the
Agustinos of
El Escorial
El Escorial, or the Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial (), or (), is a historical residence of the king of Spain located in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, up the valley ( road distance) from the town of El Escorial, Madrid, El ...
. He was awarded a
Lawyer
A lawyer is a person who is qualified to offer advice about the law, draft legal documents, or represent individuals in legal matters.
The exact nature of a lawyer's work varies depending on the legal jurisdiction and the legal system, as w ...
's licence by the
University of Zaragoza
The University of Zaragoza, sometimes referred to as Saragossa University () is a public university with teaching campuses and research centres spread over the three provinces of Aragon (Spain).
Founded in 1542, it is one of the List of oldest u ...
in 1897, and a doctorate by the Universidad Complutense in 1900.
In 1909, he achieved a position at the Main Directorate of the Registries and practised the profession of
civil law notary
Civil-law notaries, or Latin notaries, are lawyers of contentious jurisdiction, noncontentious private law, private civil law (legal system), civil law who draft, take, and record legal instruments for private parties, provide legal advice and gi ...
, and travelled to Paris in 1911. He became involved in politics and in 1914 joined the
Reformist Republican Party led by
Melquíades Álvarez. He collaborated in the production of various newspapers, such as ''
El Imparcial'' and ''
El Sol''. He also joined the
Freemasons.
During World War I, he covered operations on the Western Front for various newspapers. His treatment was very sympathetic to the French, and he may have been sponsored by French military intelligence. Afterwards he edited the magazines ''
Pluma'' and ''España'' between 1920 and 1924, founding the former with his brother-in-law
Cipriano Rivas Cherif. He was secretary of the
Ateneo de Madrid
The Ateneo de Madrid ("Athenæum of Madrid") is a private cultural institution located in the capital of Spain that was founded in 1835. Its full name is ''Ateneo Científico, Literario y Artístico de Madrid'' ("Scientific, Literary and Artistic ...
(1913–1920), becoming its president in 1930. He was a candidate for the province of
Toledo in 1918 and 1923, but lost on both occasions. In 1926 he founded the ''
Acción Republicana'' ("
Republican Action") party with
José Giral.
A strong critic of the dictatorship of
Primo de Rivera, Azaña published a stirring manifesto against the dictator and King
Alfonso XIII
Alfonso XIII (Spanish language, Spanish: ''Alfonso León Fernando María Jaime Isidro Pascual Antonio de Borbón y Habsburgo-Lorena''; French language, French: ''Alphonse Léon Ferdinand Marie Jacques Isidore Pascal Antoine de Bourbon''; 17 May ...
in 1924. In 1930, he was a signatory of the "
Pact of San Sebastián", which united all the republican and regionalist parties in Spain against Primo de Rivera and the King.
On 12 April 1931, republican candidates swept the municipal elections. This was seen as repudiation of Primo de Rivera and the monarchy. Two days later, the
Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
was proclaimed and the King forced into exile.
In the government
Niceto Alcalá-Zamora, prime minister of the provisional government of the Republic, named Azaña
Minister of War
A ministry of defence or defense (see American and British English spelling differences#-ce.2C -se, spelling differences), also known as a department of defence or defense, is the part of a government responsible for matters of defence and Mi ...
on 14 April. Alcalá-Zamora resigned in October, and Azaña replaced him as prime minister. When the new constitution was adopted on 9 December, Azaña continued as prime minister, leading a coalition of left-wing parties, including his own ''Acción Republicana'' and the
Socialists
Socialism is an economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes the economic, political, and socia ...
(PSOE), while Alcalá-Zamora became President of the Republic.
Azaña pursued some of the major reforms anticipated by the republican program. He introduced work accident insurance, reduced the size of the
Spanish Army
The Spanish Army () is the terrestrial army of the Spanish Armed Forces responsible for land-based military operations. It is one of the oldest Standing army, active armies – dating back to the late 15th century.
The Spanish Army has existed ...
, and removed some monarchist officers. He also moved to reduce the power and influence of the Roman Catholic Church, abolishing Church-operated schools and charities, and greatly expanding state-operated secular schools.
He defended these measures by saying "Do not tell me that this is contrary to freedom. It is a matter of public health".
The Spanish legislature, the
Cortes, also enacted an agrarian reform program, under which large private landholdings (''latifundia'') were to be confiscated and distributed among the rural poor. However, Azaña was a "middle-class republican", not a socialist. He and his followers were not enthusiastic for this program. The agrarian law did not include state-funded collective farms, as the Socialists wanted, and was not enacted until late 1932. It was also clumsily written, and threatened many relatively small landholders more than the latifundists. The Azaña government also did very little to carry it out: only 12,000 families received land in the first two years.
[
]
In addition, Azaña did little to reform the taxation system to shift the burden of government onto the wealthy. Also, the government continued to support the owners of industry against wildcat strikes or attempted takeovers by militant workers, especially the
anarcho-syndicalists
Anarcho-syndicalism is an anarchism, anarchist organisational model that centres trade unions as a vehicle for class conflict. Drawing from the theory of libertarian socialism and the practice of syndicalism, anarcho-syndicalism sees trade uni ...
of the ''
Confederación Nacional del Trabajo
The (CNT; ) is a Spanish anarcho-syndicalist national trade union center, trade union confederation.
Founded in 1910 in Barcelona from groups brought together by the trade union ''Solidaridad Obrera (historical union), Solidaridad Obrera'', ...
'' (National Confederation of Labour or CNT). Confrontation with the CNT erupted in
bloody violence at Casas Viejas (now
Benalup) and
Alt Llobregat. Violence against protesters also occurred against non CNT-affiliated workers during
Castilblanco and
Arnedo events.
Meanwhile, Azaña's extreme anti-clerical program alienated many moderates. In local elections held in early 1933, most of the seats went to conservative and centrist parties. Elections to the "Tribunal of Constitutional Guarantees" (the Republic's "Supreme Court") followed this pattern.
Thus Azaña came into conflict with both the right and far left. He called a
vote of confidence, but two-thirds of the Cortes abstained, and Alcalá-Zamora ordered Azaña's resignation on 8 September 1933. New elections were held on 19 November 1933.
These elections were won by the right-wing ''
Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas
The Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (, CEDA) was a Spanish right-wing political party in the Second Spanish Republic. A Catholic conservative force, it was the political heir to Ángel Herrera Oria's Acción Popular and defined ...
'' (CEDA) and the centrist
Radical Republican Party
The Radical Republican Party (), sometimes shortened to the Radical Party, was a Spanish Radical party in existence between 1908 and 1936. Beginning as a splinter from earlier Radical parties, it initially played a minor role in Spanish parlia ...
. Radical leader
Alejandro Lerroux became prime minister. Azaña temporarily withdrew from politics and returned to literary activity.
Azaña's self-imposed political retreat lasted only a short while; in 1934 he founded the
Republican Left party, the fusion of ''Acción Republicana'' with the
Radical Socialist Republican Party, led by
Marcelino Domingo, and the ''
Organización Republicana Gallega Autónoma
The Autonomous Galician Republican Organization (, ORGA) was a Spanish left-wing republicanism, republican and Galician nationalist party in Galicia (Spain), Galicia. It was founded in October 1929 in A Coruña by Santiago Casares Quiroga and Antó ...
'' (ORGA) of
Santiago Casares Quiroga
Santiago Casares y Quiroga (8 May 1884 – 17 February 1950) was Prime Minister of Spain from 13 May to 19 July 1936. Casares Quiroga resigned just 48 hours after the beginning of the Spanish coup of July 1936, military insurrection that led to t ...
.
On 5 October 1934, the PSOE and Communists attempted a general left-wing rebellion. The rebellion had a temporary success in
Asturias
Asturias (; ; ) officially the Principality of Asturias, is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in northwest Spain.
It is coextensive with the provinces of Spain, province of Asturias and contains some of the territory t ...
and
Barcelona
Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
, but was over in two weeks. Azaña was in Barcelona that day, and the Lerroux-CEDA government tried to implicate him. He was arrested and charged with complicity in the rebellion.
In fact, Azaña had no connection with the rebellion, and the attempt to convict him on spurious charges soon collapsed, giving him the prestige of a martyr. He was released from prison in January 1935. Azaña then helped organize the ''
Frente Popular'' ("Popular Front"), a coalition of all the major left-wing parties for the elections of 16 February 1936.
The Front won the election, and Azaña became prime minister again on 19 February. His parliamentary coalition included the PSOE and Communists. This alarmed conservatives, who remembered their attempt to seize power only 17 months earlier. The Azaña government proclaimed an immediate amnesty for all prisoners from the rebellion, which increased conservative concerns. Socialists and Communists were appointed to important positions in the Assault Guard and Civil Guard.
Also, with the Popular Front victory, radicalized peasants led by the Socialists began seizing land on 25 March. Azaña chose to legitimize these actions rather than challenge them. Radical Socialists vied with Communists in calling for violent revolution and forcible suppression of the Right. Political assassinations by Communists, Socialists, and anarchosyndicalists were frequent, as were retaliations by increasingly radicalized conservatives.
Azaña insisted that the danger to the Republic was from the Right and on 11 March, the government suppressed the
Falange.
Azaña was a man of very strong convictions.
Stanley G. Payne
Stanley George Payne (born September 9, 1934) is an American historian of modern Spain and Europe, European fascism at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He retired from full-time teaching in 2004 and is currently Professor Emeritus at its Dep ...
, an iconic figure of the of Francoist revisionism, tentatively described him as "the last great figure of traditional Castilian arrogance in the
history of Spain
The history of Spain dates to contact between the List of the Pre-Roman peoples of the Iberian Peninsula, pre-Roman peoples of the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean coast of the Iberian Peninsula with the Greeks and Phoenicians. During Classical A ...
."
[ Payne (2006), p. 356] As a "middle class republican", he was implacably hostile to the monarchy and the Church. The CEDA, which was pro-Catholic, he therefore regarded as illegitimate, and also any and all monarchists, even those who supported parliamentary democracy.
In the view of
Paul Preston
Sir Paul Preston CBE (born 21 July 1946) is an English historian and Hispanist, biographer of Francisco Franco, and specialist in Spanish history, in particular the Spanish Civil War, which he has studied for more than 50 years. He is the winn ...
, nothing indicates more directly the value of the services provided by Azaña to the Republic than the hatred felt towards him by the ideologues and propagandists of the Francoist cause.
Presidency
When the Cortes met in April, it removed President Alcalá-Zamora from office. On 7 April 1936, Azaña was elected President of the Republic; Quiroga succeeded him as prime minister. Azaña by this time was profoundly depressed by the increasing disorder, but could see no way to counter it.
Stanley Payne reports that in the Cortes meeting of April 15, Azaña stated "I don't intend to serve as anyone's guardian angel" and told the right-wing deputies "
d you not want violence...? Then take to violence. Be prepared for the consequences", despite the fact that CEDA had adhered to the law. He would later regret these remarks and try to backtrack by blaming the violence and unrest on the Spanish national character but this gave the impression the government was disinterested in enforcing the law.
Azaña repeatedly warned his fellow Republicans that the lack of unity within the government was a serious threat to the Republic's stability. Political violence continued: there were over 200 assassinations in February through early July.
By July, the
military conspiracy to overthrow the Republic was well underway, but nothing definite had been planned. Then
on 13 July,
José Calvo Sotelo, leader of a small monarchist grouping in the Cortes, was arrested and murdered by a mixed group of Socialist gunmen and Assault Guards. Azaña and Quiroga did not act effectively against the killers.
On 17 July, right-wing, Falangist, and monarchist elements in the Republican army proclaimed the overthrow of the Republic. The rebellion failed in Madrid, however. Azaña replaced Quiroga as Prime Minister with his ally
Diego Martínez Barrio
Diego Martínez Barrio (25 November 1883, in Seville – 1 January 1962) was a Spanish politician during the Second Spanish Republic, Prime Minister of Spain between 9 October 1933 and 26 December 1933 and was briefly appointed again by Manuel A ...
, and the government attempted a compromise with the rebels, which was rejected by General
Mola.
On 13 September, Azaña authorized Minister of Finance
Juan Negrín to move the
nation's gold reserve to wherever Negrin thought it would be secure. Negrin shipped it to the Soviet Union, which claimed it in payment for arms supplied to the Republic.
In 1938, Azaña moved to Barcelona with the rest of the Republican government, and was cut off there when the monarchist forces drove to the sea between Barcelona and
Valencia
Valencia ( , ), formally València (), is the capital of the Province of Valencia, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, the same name in Spain. It is located on the banks of the Turia (r ...
.
Road to exile
La Barata
Since February 1938 Azaña resided in La Barata, an isolated mansion at the outskirts of
Matadepera near
Terrassa
Terrassa () is a city in central-eastern Catalonia and in the province of Barcelona (Spain). It is one of the two capitals of Vallès Occidental county, being the larger in both area and population.
The name ''Terrassa'' derives from Latin ''Te ...
. Built by
Lliga politician
Francesc Salvans, killed by the Republicans, between late 1937 and early 1938 it was undergoing preparation works to host the head of state. The place was some 30 km away from Barcelona and some 80 km from the French frontier. Already on January 13, 1939 General
Juan Hernández Saravia advised the president to leave the place given rapid advance of Nationalist troops, the suggestion repeated by Negrin on January 17. On January 19 Saravia insisted the president evacuates; Azaña commenced preparations.
Llavaneras
The president, his family and his entourage, including secretaries and military
AdCs, left La Barata on January 21 (Nationalist troops would seize the place on January 24). Following a drive of some 50 km east in the afternoon hours, the column of cars his entourage were travelling in reached the town of
Llavaneras (now San Andreu de Llavaneres), north of
Mataró
Mataró () is the capital and largest town of the Maresme county in Catalonia, Spain. It is located on the Costa del Maresme, Maresme coast, to the south of Costa Brava, between Cabrera de Mar and Sant Andreu de Llavaneres, north-east of Barcel ...
, some 30 km from Barcelona and some 100 km from the French frontier. It turned out that the premises, supposed to host Azaña, were unsuitable; they spent the night in a randomly selected and hastily prepared house in a park.
Caldetas
The following day, on January 22, some members of Azaña's family left to France. The president proceeded to the coastal town of
Caldetas (now Caldes d'Estrac), some 4 km away, where in another makeshift premises he spent the following one or two nights, while remainder of his belongings were being fetched from La Barata. During these few days he was almost entirely isolated, with little to no contact either with the government or the military command; at the same time, the evacuation of Barcelona had commenced.
Peralada
The presidential column departed north from Caldetas on January 23 or 24 (the city would be seized by the Nationalists on January 28), and following a drive of some 90-km, in the evening hours they reached the
castle in Peralada, some 120 km from Barcelona, only 15 km from the French frontier; the Pyrenees were clearly visible from their new premises.
It was in Peralada that contact with the government, representatives of the Cortes, the Republican military and foreign envoys, was re-established. Castillo de Peralada remained Azaña's residence for around a week. During this period
Barcelona fell to the Nationalists. On January 30 Negrín visited the president and offered to have an aircraft ready to take Azaña to France, should immediate evacuation be necessary. The president declined the proposal, fearing that Negrín would rather forcibly take Azana to the central zone, Valencia or Madrid.
Agullana
Some time at the end of January, early February (the exact day is unclear, January 31 at the earliest, February 2 at the latest) the president left Peralada and moved some 20 km north-west, to
Agullana. It was a village in the Pyrennees, some 4 km from the French frontier, located by a secondary drive and away from main roads, which were crammed with refugees trying to flee Barcelona and Catalonia. Agullana was at the time was also hosting the staff of general Rojo. The president spent one night there.
La Vajol
The following day, probably either on February 2 or February 3, Azaña left Agullana and drove some 5 km up the road, to the last Spanish settlement some 2 km from the French frontier, the hamlet of
La Vajol. It is there he met his last foreign diplomatic representatives. On February 4 Negrín visited Azaña in La Vajol and suggested that, in view of the advance of Nationalist troops, the president cross to France as soon as possible.
French frontier
On February 5, at 6 AM, when it was still dark, Azaña, his wife, his entourage and some state officials departed La Vajol (which would be seized by the Nationalists on February 9), fleeing north to France. What should have been a drive of a few minutes turned into a slightly longer journey. The leading police car broke down and blocked the narrow, winding, mountainous road. All the passengers had to leave their cars and proceed on foot, struggling on what proved a slippery, iced surface. The party encountered French ''
gendarmes'' sometime after dawn.
Last days
On 3 March, Manuel Azana resigned as President of the Republic, rather than return to Madrid with the rest of the government. Both Nationalist and Republican commentators have condemned this decision as "desertion".
Azaña lived in exile in France for more than a year after the war, eventually being trapped by the invasion of France by Germany and institution of the
Vichy regime
Vichy France (; 10 July 1940 – 9 August 1944), officially the French State ('), was a French rump state headed by Marshal Philippe Pétain during World War II, established as a result of the French capitulation after the defeat against ...
. Even then, his safety was ensured due to the intervention of the
Mexican government, which had refused to extend diplomatic recognition to Franco's regime (Mexico would not resume relations with Spain until 1977, two years after Franco's death). To prevent his arrest and extradition, Azaña was vested with
Mexican citizenship and named Honorary Ambassador, thus granting him diplomatic immunity. His residence was officially an extension of the Mexican Embassy and therefore under Mexican jurisdiction, and was closely monitored by Mexican military personnel.
Azaña died of natural causes on 3 November 1940, in
Montauban
Montauban (, ; ) is a commune in the southern French department of Tarn-et-Garonne. It is the capital of the department and lies north of Toulouse. Montauban is the most populated town in Tarn-et-Garonne, and the sixth most populated of Oc ...
, France. He received the
last rites
The last rites, also known as the Commendation of the Dying, are the last prayers and ministrations given to an individual of Christian faith, when possible, shortly before death. The Commendation of the Dying is practiced in liturgical Chri ...
of Catholicism before his death. The
Vichy authorities refused to allow his coffin to be covered with the
Spanish Republican flag. The coffin was covered instead with the
flag of Mexico
The national flag, national flag of Mexico () is a vertical Tricolour (flag), tricolor of green, white, and red with Coat of arms of Mexico, the national coat of arms charge (heraldry), charged in the center of the white stripe. While the meani ...
.
Writings
In his diaries and memoirs, on which he worked meticulously, Azaña vividly describes the various personality and ideological conflicts between himself and various Republican leaders, such as Largo Caballero and Negrín. Azaña's writings during the Civil War have been resources for study by scholars of the workings of the Republican government during the conflict. Along with his extensive memoirs and diaries, Azaña also wrote a number of well-known speeches. His speech on 18 July 1938 is one of the best known in which he implores his fellow Spaniards to seek reconciliation after the fighting ends and emphasizes the need for "Peace, Pity, and Pardon."
Azaña wrote a play during the Civil War, ''La velada en Benicarló'' ("Vigil in Benicarló"). Having worked on the play during the previous weeks, Azaña dictated the final version while he was trapped in Barcelona during the
"Days of May" violence. In the play, Azaña uses various characters to espouse the various ideological, political and social perspectives present within the Republic during the war. He portrayed and explored the rivalries and conflicts that were damaging the political cohesion of the Republic.
Azaña was aware of
General Franco and
Jose Sanjurjo's firm determination to overthrow the Republic, which would culminate in the
Law of Political Responsibilities ''(Ley de Responsabilidades Políticas)'' at the end of the war. Saddened, he reflected:
During the many years of his political activity, Azaña kept diaries. His work ''Diarios completos: monarquía, república, Guerra Civil'' was published posthumously in Spanish in 2003.
Political legacy
According to British historian Piers Brendon, Manuel Azaña was the leading Republican politician. He was a well-educated would-be writer who "plotted to rid Spain of the yoke of church and king". A brilliant speaker, Azaña was graceful in word, but clumsy in action. "He was a polemical bullfighter but a political bulldozer.". Although he preached a lofty form of liberalism, he had a mixed record as prime minister. He wanted to introduce a welfare state with minimum-wage, sickness benefits and paid holidays, but he never attempted to deal with the overwhelming problem of peasant poverty. He was so concerned to balance the budget that he cut back on land redistribution. He worked more effectively to establish a secular state, breaking the Catholic church's hold on education, legalizing civil marriage, seizing Catholic properties, expelling the Jesuit order, and tolerating the burning of church buildings such as convents for nuns. "All the convents in Spain are not worth a single Republican life," he proclaimed. As opposition mounted, he censored the press, exiled his enemies to North Africa, and formed a private militia force of Assault Guards. Meanwhile, his allies the anarchists were assassinating priests and nuns, and burning convents.
Azaña tried to reform the army, by replacing outmoded equipment and closing its military academy. In the process he demoted its most promising general—young Francisco Franco. Azaña was defeated in the elections of November 1933, having antagonized extremists and alienated the moderates. He made a comeback in 1936 but could not hold his coalition together in the face of a civil war. In recent decades he has become a hero of the left in Spain.
[Brendon, pp 365–367.]
See also
*
Grupo de Acción Republicana
*
Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
*
Spanish Civil War
The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...
References
Further reading
*
*
Ben-Ami, Shlomo. ''The origins of the Second Republic in Spain'' (Oxford UP, 1978).
*
* Feeny, Thomas. "Fact and Fiction in Rojas 'Azaña'." ''Hispanófila'' 103 (1991): 33–46
online on a fictionalized life of Azaña.
*
* Sedwick, Frank. ''The tragedy of Manuel Azaña and the fate of the Spanish Republic'' (Ohio State Univ Press, 1964
online review
Other languages
*
Lagarrigue, Max. "Manuel Azaña en Montauban. La ultima morada del presidente de la República española, Manuel Azaña", in .
*
*
External links
*
*
Manuel Azaña Association
{{DEFAULTSORT:Azana, Manuel
1880 births
1940 deaths
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