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Malherbe's parakeet is a small parrot
endemic Endemism is the state of a species being found only in a single defined geographic location, such as an island, state, nation, country or other defined zone; organisms that are indigenous to a place are not endemic to it if they are also foun ...
to
New Zealand New Zealand () is an island country in the southwestern Pacific Ocean. It consists of two main landmasses—the North Island () and the South Island ()—and List of islands of New Zealand, over 600 smaller islands. It is the List of isla ...
, where it is known as the orange-fronted parakeet () or orange-fronted kākāriki. In the rest of the world it is called Malherbe's parakeet, as when it was recognised as a species, the name "orange-fronted parakeet" was already used for '' Eupsittula canicularis'', a Central American species.BirdLife International (2016
Species factsheet: ''Cyanoramphus malherbi''.
Downloaded from www.birdlife.org on 2016-03-23.
Restricted to a few valleys in the South Island and four offshore islands, its population declined to around 200 in the 1990s, and it is considered
critically endangered An IUCN Red List critically endangered (CR or sometimes CE) species is one that has been categorized by the International Union for Conservation of Nature as facing an extremely high risk of extinction in the wild. As of December 2023, of t ...
by the
International Union for Conservation of Nature The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the stat ...
.


Taxonomy

The genus '' Cyanoramphus'' is endemic to New Zealand and surrounding islandsKearvell, J; Grant, A; Boon, W (2003). "The orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'') is a distinct species: a review of recent research on its taxonomy and systematic relationship within the genus ''Cyanoramphus"''. ''Notornis'', 50: 27–35 and it has been proposed that the ancestor of ''Cyanoramphus'' dispersed from New Caledonia to New Zealand via Norfolk Island 500,000 years ago.Boon, W; Kearvell, J; Daugherty, C; Chambers, G. (2001). "Molecular Systematics and Conservation of Kakariki (''Cyaniramphus'' spp.'')".'' ''Science for Conservation 176'', Department of Conservation, Wellington, New Zealand Controversy has surrounded the classification of this bird; is it its own species or a colour morph of the similar yellow-crowned parakeet (''C. auriceps'')? It was described in 1857 from a museum specimen of unknown origin; its species name honours French ornithologist Alfred Malherbe. During the late 1800s, ornithologists considered it to be a distinct species, but during the latter half of the 20th century, it was often considered a colour morph;Nixon, A.J. (1981). "The External Morphology and Taxonomic Status of the Orange-fronted Parakeet". ''Notornis'' 28: 292–300 as recently as 1990, the Ornithological Society of New Zealand listed it as a form of ''C. auriceps''. After analysis using molecular genetic methods in 2000, the current consensus among researchers, which is accepted by the
New Zealand Department of Conservation The Department of Conservation (DOC; Māori language, Māori: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage. An advisory body, the New Zealand ...
, is that ''C. malherbi'' is a distinct species.


Description

Malherbe's parakeet is a medium-sized parrot, about 20 cm long. Its body is primarily a bright blue-green, with azure blue primary covert and leading-edge feathers on its wings. It has a distinctive (and diagnostic) orange frontal band on its yellow crown, but this is absent in juvenile birds, which have fully green heads.Kearvell, J; Connor, C; Farley, M. (2014). "Field identification of the orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi''): pitfalls for the unwary". ''Notornis'' 61(4): 200–204 The orange frontal band begins to develop when the bird is 2–5 weeks old. Its rump has orange patches on the sides. Colouration in males tends to be brighter, and juveniles are distinctly duller. The only reliable features that separate mature orange-fronted parakeets from the similar yellow-crowned parakeet (''C. auriceps'') are the colour of the frontal band and rump.


Distribution and habitat

The species is found in only three regions on New Zealand's
South Island The South Island ( , 'the waters of Pounamu, Greenstone') is the largest of the three major islands of New Zealand by surface area, the others being the smaller but more populous North Island and Stewart Island. It is bordered to the north by ...
: the South Branch Hurunui River Valley, Hawdon River Valley, and the Poulter Valley. In addition, four translocated populations are found on Maud Island,
Blumine Island Blumine Island / is an island in the outer reaches of Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui, in the Marlborough Sounds at the northern end of New Zealand's South Island. The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage gives a translation of "m ...
, Chalky Island, and Mayor Island / Tuhua.Gaze, P., Cash, B. (2008) ''A history of wildlife translocations in the Marlborough Sounds'', Occasional Publication No. 72, Nelson: Department of Conservation In the South Island, the parakeet is predominantly found only in ''
Nothofagus ''Nothofagus'', also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere, found across southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guin ...
''/'' Fuscospora'' (beech) forest with some reports from alpine and subalpine tussock and open matagouri shrubland.Harrison, M. (1970). "The Orange-fronted Parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'')". ''Notornis'' 17 (2): 115–125 On Maud Island, one study found that the parakeet prefers areas with greater canopy cover and lower understory and ground cover.Ortiz-Catedral, L. (2012). "Habitat use by the critically endangered orange-fronted parakeet (''Cyanoramphus malherbi'') on Maud Island: its relevance for future translocations". ''Notornis'' 59: 148-152 The species is not restricted to this type of forest, however, and as its population density increases, it may make more use of other habitats.


Behaviour

The parakeet is most often observed foraging, preening, and resting. It prefers the upper stratum of forests, but also frequents lower strata more often than ''C. auriceps''.


Diet and feeding

Malherbe's parakeet typically feeds in the canopy of New Zealand beech trees, but also forages in low vegetation and on the ground. It is typically observed feeding in flocks of mixed species, eating various seeds, beech flowers, buds, and invertebrates. During spring, invertebrates become a significant part of their diet, including leaf roller moth and fungus moth caterpillars, other Lepidoptera, and aphids. They have been observed feeding on herbs and ferns on the ground, including ''
Pratia ''Pratia'' is a formerly recognized genus of flowering plants in the family Campanulaceae, native to Asia, Australia and New Zealand. Along with other genera, such as ''Hypsela'' and ''Isotoma'', it is now included in '' Lobelia''. Former specie ...
'' species, '' Oreomyrrhis colensoi, Parahebe lyallii, Leptinella maniototo'' and ''
Blechnum penna-marina ''Austroblechnum penna-marina'', Synonym (taxonomy), synonym ''Blechnum penna-marina'', known as Antarctic hard-fern, Little Hard Fern, Alpine Hard Fern, alpine water fern and pinque (Chilean Spanish), is a species of fern in the family (biolog ...
''. During mast years, beech seeds become the dominant feature of their diet. The Maud Island population appears to have different dietary preferences to mainland populations, eating more plant species and fewer invertebrates.


Breeding

Malherbe's parakeets are monogamous and able to nest year-round, but peak breeding is between December and April. They primarily nest in natural hollows or cavities of mature beech trees, preferring red beech ('' Fuscospora fusca''). On Maud Island they were found to nest in ''
Pinus radiata ''Pinus radiata'' ( syn. ''Pinus insignis''), the Monterey pine, insignis pine or radiata pine, is a species of pine native to the Central Coast of California and Mexico (on Guadalupe Island and Cedros island). It is an evergreen conifer in t ...
'' forests. Clutch size is around seven eggs with an incubation period of 21–26 days. The female exclusively incubates and the male feeds her. Nestlings fledge between 43 and 71 days, but remain dependent for 2–4 weeks. Their breeding is also linked to the production of beech seed during mast years. During seeding events, and other periods where food is plentiful, they are able to produce secondary clutches, with some pairs reportedly breeding up to four times in succession.


Status

Malherbe's parakeet was classified as nationally endangered by the
New Zealand Department of Conservation The Department of Conservation (DOC; Māori language, Māori: ''Te Papa Atawhai'') is the public service department of New Zealand charged with the conservation of New Zealand's natural and historical heritage. An advisory body, the New Zealand ...
in 2012 and critically endangered by the
IUCN The International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) is an international organization working in the field of nature conservation and sustainable use of natural resources. Founded in 1948, IUCN has become the global authority on the status ...
. In the 19th century, the species was widespread, occurring throughout New Zealand's South Island. The birds were seminomadic, dispersing in search of food when numbers were high. This behaviour has stopped due to low numbers and habitat modification, which also has implications for re-establishment of the species. Prior to 2000, the parrot's population numbered in the hundreds in the South Island, but fell from 500–700 individuals to an estimated 100–200 by 2004, due to significant increases in rat and stoat populations, in particular a rat plague during 2001.Elliot, G.P.; Suggate, R. 2007. ''Operation Ark: three year progress report''. Christchurch, Department of Conservation The Hawdon River Valley houses the largest population, with 70–200 individuals reported in 2013, but numbers are apparently decreasing. The Poulter Valley population also declined in 2013, with roughly 40–80 individuals now occurring in this region. The South Branch Hurunui River Valley population is even smaller, as few as 20–40 birds. The world population of this species was estimated to be 290–690 individuals in 2013, with translocated island populations making up 160–420 of these birds. Determining exact numbers of the parakeet is difficult, however, due to their rarity, quiet nature, and similarities to ''C. auriceps''.


Threats

The original decline in population was most likely due to
habitat destruction Habitat destruction (also termed habitat loss or habitat reduction) occurs when a natural habitat is no longer able to support its native species. The organisms once living there have either moved elsewhere, or are dead, leading to a decrease ...
and fragmentation by human activity, hunting,Innes, J; Kelly, D; Overton, J; Gilles, C. (2010). "Predation and other factors currently limiting New Zealand forest birds" ''New Zealand Journal of Ecology'' 34: 86–114 and predation from exotic species. Hunting has ceased and their habitat is protected, but
habitat fragmentation Habitat fragmentation describes the emergence of discontinuities (fragmentation) in an organism's preferred environment (habitat), causing population fragmentation and ecosystem decay. Causes of habitat fragmentation include geological proces ...
may also continue to threaten Malherbe's parakeet. Malherbe's parakeets evolved in isolation from land mammals, so are especially vulnerable to introduced predators. Their current decline is due to predation from stoats ( ''Mustela ermine''), rats (''
Rattus ''Rattus'' is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus. Species and description The best-known ''Rattus'' species are the black rat (''R. rattus'') ...
'' spp.), and brushtail possums ('' Trichosurus vulpecula) '', which target eggs and nestlings. One population was reduced by 85% in 2001 due to predator irruption after a beech mast (a season of high production by
southern beech ''Nothofagus'', also known as the southern beeches, is a genus of 43 species of trees and shrubs native to the Southern Hemisphere, found across southern South America (Chile, Argentina) and east and southeast Australia, New Zealand, New Guin ...
). Deer and possums also contribute to the decline of Malherbe's parakeets through forest destruction. Competition for food may also be a factor. Introduced birds, mice, wasps, and rats are considerably reducing invertebrate numbers, on which the parakeet relies during winter and spring. The parakeet is a food generalist, though, and may compensate with other food sources, as observed on Maud Island. This dietary flexibility is promising for the species' recovery.
Inbreeding depression Inbreeding depression is the reduced biological fitness caused by loss of genetic diversity as a consequence of inbreeding, the breeding of individuals closely related genetically. This loss of genetic diversity results from small population siz ...
and low genetic diversity may affect the viability of these small populations by reducing their capacity to adapt to threats and diseases. The specialised nesting habitat of the orange-fronted parakeet increases its vulnerability to extinction. The reasons for this include: (1) a single nest opening means that incubating females may be unable to escape from invading predators and will also be killed, (2) because only females incubate, predation may cause a biased sex ratio, (3) their relatively long nesting period (when compared to other passerines) increases their vulnerability to predation, and (4) the chicks tend to be noisy and therefore more attractive to predators. Furthermore, in beech
silviculture Silviculture is the practice of controlling the growth, composition/structure, as well as quality of forests to meet values and needs, specifically timber production. The name comes from the Latin ('forest') and ('growing'). The study of forests ...
, the trees are not given enough time to develop adequate hollows before they are harvested, thereby reducing the number of suitable nesting sites in managed beech forests. Introduced starlings may also be outcompeting the parrot for nesting sites.


Conservation

Malherbe's parakeet is absolutely protected under New Zealand's
Wildlife Act 1953 Wildlife Act 1953 is an Act of Parliament in New Zealand. Under the act, the majority of native New Zealand vertebrate species are protected by law, and may not be hunted, killed, eaten or possessed. Violations may be punished with fines of up t ...
. The species is also listed under Appendix II of the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) meaning international export/import (including parts and derivatives) is regulated. Predator management is the main strategy to reverse this species' decline. All three mainland populations come under the "Operation Ark" initiative, which controls stoat, possum, and rat populations through integrated pest management, with particular focus on reducing the effect of predator plagues. These pest-management strategies have worked with other New Zealand bird species to reduce predation by introduced mammals. Individual nest sites are also protected from predators using metal tree-trunk wraps; this has been a successful programme and only one nest out of 153 has been lost to predators since 2003. The other major conservation strategy is captive-breeding programmes carried out at Peacock Springs by the Isaac Wildlife Trust, with individuals being released on predator-free islands. Birds are placed in portable aviaries in the forest to acclimatise them before release. A total of 45 birds was released between 2005 and 2007 on Chalky Island, off the coast of
Fiordland Fiordland (, "The Pit of Tattooing", and also translated as "the Shadowlands"), is a non-administrative geographical region of New Zealand in the south-western corner of the South Island, comprising the western third of Southland. Most of F ...
. The local population had increased to 150 individuals in 2009, and 100–200 by 2011, but had declined to 50–150 individuals in 2013. Sixty-eight individuals were released on Maud Island in the
Marlborough Sounds The Marlborough Sounds (Māori language, te reo Māori: ''Te Tauihu-o-te-Waka'') are an extensive network of ria, sea-drowned valleys at the northern end of the South Island of New Zealand. The Marlborough Sounds were created by a combination ...
between 2007 and 2009, but in 2013, the island's population consisted of only 10–20 birds. Malherbe's parakeets have also been translocated to Mayor Island / Tuhua in the
Bay of Plenty The Bay of Plenty () is a large bight (geography), bight along the northern coast of New Zealand's North Island. It stretches from the Coromandel Peninsula in the west to Cape Runaway in the east. Called ''Te Moana-a-Toitehuatahi'' (the Ocean ...
and
Blumine Island Blumine Island / is an island in the outer reaches of Queen Charlotte Sound / Tōtaranui, in the Marlborough Sounds at the northern end of New Zealand's South Island. The New Zealand Ministry for Culture and Heritage gives a translation of "m ...
in the Marlborough Sounds; estimated population in 2013 were 50–150 and 50–100 birds, respectively. These two populations, however, are not as well studied as those on Chalky Island and Maud Island. A population of Malherbe's parakeets has been established at th
Brook Waimārama Sanctuary
near Nelson through seven translocations (to March 2023) totalling 125 birds from several of the other populations.ENews
from Brook Sanctuary, March 2023: 2.


References


External links

* Orange-fronted parakeet discussed on RadioNZ's ''Critter of the Week''
24 February 2017

Films of the Malherbe's Parakeet
at the Cornell Lab of Ornithology {{Taxonbar, from=Q690284 Malherbe's parakeet Malherbe's parakeet Birds of the South Island Malherbe's parakeet Parakeets Endemic birds of New Zealand Parrots of Oceania