Maghrebi script or Maghribi script or Maghrebi Arabic script () refers to a loosely related family of
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...
s that developed in the
Maghreb
The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...
(North Africa),
al-Andalus
Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
(
Iberia
The Iberian Peninsula ( ), also known as Iberia, is a peninsula in south-western Europe. Mostly separated from the rest of the European landmass by the Pyrenees, it includes the territories of peninsular Spain and Continental Portugal, compri ...
), and
''Bilad as-Sudan'' (the
West Africa
West Africa, also known as Western Africa, is the westernmost region of Africa. The United Nations geoscheme for Africa#Western Africa, United Nations defines Western Africa as the 16 countries of Benin, Burkina Faso, Cape Verde, The Gambia, Gha ...
n
Sahel
The Sahel region (; ), or Sahelian acacia savanna, is a Biogeography, biogeographical region in Africa. It is the Ecotone, transition zone between the more humid Sudanian savannas to its south and the drier Sahara to the north. The Sahel has a ...
). Maghrebi script is directly derived from the
Kufic
The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
script,
and is traditionally written with a pointed tip (), producing a line of even thickness.
The script is characterized by rounded letter forms, extended horizontal features, and final open curves below the baseline. It also differs from
Mashreqi scripts in the notation of the letters
''faa'' (Maghrebi: ; Mashreqi: ) and ''
qāf
Qoph is the nineteenth Letter (alphabet), letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician alphabet, Phoenician ''qōp'' 𐤒, Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew ''qūp̄'' , Aramaic alphabet, Aramaic ''qop'' 𐡒, Syriac alphabet, Syriac ''qōp̄'' ܩ, ...
'' (Maghrebi: ; Mashreqi: ).
For centuries, Maghrebi script was used to write Arabic
manuscript
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has ...
s and record
Andalusi and
Moroccan literature, whether in
Classical Arabic
Classical Arabic or Quranic Arabic () is the standardized literary form of Arabic used from the 7th century and throughout the Middle Ages, most notably in Umayyad Caliphate, Umayyad and Abbasid Caliphate, Abbasid literary texts such as poetry, e ...
,
Maghrebi Arabic
Maghrebi Arabic, often known as ''ad-Dārija'' to differentiate it from Literary Arabic, is a vernacular Arabic dialect continuum spoken in the Maghreb. It includes the Moroccan, Algerian, Tunisian, Libyan, Hassaniya and Saharan Arabic di ...
, or
Amazigh languages.
History
Origins
Arabic script first came to the Maghreb with the
Islamic conquests (643–709). The conquerors, led by
Uqba ibn Nafi
ʿUqba ibn Nāfiʿ ibn ʿAbd al-Qays al-Fihrī al-Qurashī (), also simply known as Uqba ibn Nafi (622 – 683), was an Arab general serving the Rashidun Caliphate since the reign of Umar and later the Umayyad Caliphate during the reigns of Mu'awi ...
, used both
Hijazi and
Kufic script
The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
s, as demonstrated in coins minted in 711 under
Musa ibn Nusayr
Musa ibn Nusayr ( ''Mūsá bin Nuṣayr''; 640 – c. 716) was an Arab general and governor who served under the Umayyad caliph Al-Walid I. He ruled over the Muslim province of Ifriqiya, and directed the Islamic conquest of the Visigothic King ...
.
Maghrebi script is a direct descendant of the old Kufic script that predated
Ibn Muqla
Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla (; 885/6 – 20 July 940/1), commonly known as Ibn Muqla, was an official of the Abbasid Caliphate who rose to high state posts in the early 10th century. His career culminated in his own assumption of the v ...
's ''al-khat al-mansub'' ( ''proportioned line'') standardization reforms, which affected Mashreqi scripts.
The
Arabic script
The Arabic script is the writing system used for Arabic (Arabic alphabet) and several other languages of Asia and Africa. It is the second-most widely used alphabetic writing system in the world (after the Latin script), the second-most widel ...
in its
Iraqi Kufic form spread from centers such as
Fes,
Cordoba, and
Qayrawan throughout the region along with
Islam
Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
, as the Quran was studied and transcribed.
Qayrawani Kufic script developed in
al-Qayrawan from the Iraqi Kufic script.
African and Andalusi scripts

Early on, there were two schools of Maghrebi script: the African script (, ) and the Andalusi script (, ).
The African script evolved in
Ifriqiya
Ifriqiya ( '), also known as al-Maghrib al-Adna (), was a medieval historical region comprising today's Tunisia, eastern Algeria, and Tripolitania (roughly western Libya). It included all of what had previously been the Byzantine province of ...
(Tunisia) from Iraqi Kufic by way of the Kufic of
Qairawan.
The Andalusi script evolved in Iberia from the
Damascene Kufic script with the establishment of the second
Umayyad
The Umayyad Caliphate or Umayyad Empire (, ; ) was the second caliphate established after the death of the Islamic prophet Muhammad and was ruled by the Umayyad dynasty. Uthman ibn Affan, the third of the Rashidun caliphs, was also a membe ...
state, which would become the
Caliphate of Córdoba
A caliphate ( ) is an institution or public office under the leadership of an Islamic steward with Khalifa, the title of caliph (; , ), a person considered a political–religious successor to the Islamic prophet Muhammad and a leader of ...
.
The Andalusi script was particular for its rounded letters, as attested to in
Al-Maqdisi
Shams al-Din Abu Abd Allah Muhammad ibn Ahmad ibn Abi Bakr, commonly known by the ''Nisba (onomastics), nisba'' al-Maqdisi or al-Muqaddasī, was a medieval Arab geographer, author of ''The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions'' and '' ...
's geography book ''
The Best Divisions in the Knowledge of the Regions''.
The African script had spread throughout the Maghreb before the spread of the Andalusi script.
One of the most famous early users of the Arabic script was
Salih ibn Tarif, the leader of the
Barghawata Confederacy and the author of a religious text known as the ''
Quran of Salih''.
In (, 'the Far West', modern-day
Morocco
Morocco, officially the Kingdom of Morocco, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It has coastlines on the Mediterranean Sea to the north and the Atlantic Ocean to the west, and has land borders with Algeria to Algeria–Morocc ...
), the script developed independently from the Kufic of the
Maghrawa
The Maghrawa or Meghrawa () were a large Berber tribal confederation in North Africa. They are the largest branch of the Zenata confederation. Their traditional territories around the time of Muslim expansion into the Maghreb in the 7th century ...
and
Bani Ifran under the
Idrisid dynasty
The Idrisid dynasty or Idrisids ( ') were an Arabs, Arab Muslims, Muslim dynasty from 788 to 974, ruling most of present-day Morocco and parts of present-day western Algeria. Named after the founder, Idris I of Morocco, Idris I, the Idrisids were ...
(788–974);
it gained
Mashreqi features under the Imam a
Idris I, who came from
Arabia
The Arabian Peninsula (, , or , , ) or Arabia, is a peninsula in West Asia, situated north-east of Africa on the Arabian plate. At , comparable in size to India, the Arabian Peninsula is the largest peninsula in the world.
Geographically, the ...
.
The script under the Idrisids was basic and unembellished; it was influenced by Iraqi Kufic, which was used on the
Idrisid dirham.
Imperial patronage
Almoravid
Under the
Almoravid dynasty
The Almoravid dynasty () was a Berber Muslim dynasty centered in the territory of present-day Morocco. It established an empire that stretched over the western Maghreb and Al-Andalus, starting in the 1050s and lasting until its fall to the Almo ...
, the Andalusi script spread throughout the Maghreb, reaching
Qairawan; the
Jerīd region, however, kept the African script.
A version of Kufic with florid features developed at this time. The
University of al-Qarawiyyin
The University of al-Qarawiyyin (), also written Al-Karaouine or Al Quaraouiyine, is a university located in Fez, Morocco. It was founded as a mosque by Fatima al-Fihri in 857–859 and subsequently became one of the leading spiritual and educ ...
, the
Almoravid Qubba, and the
Almoravid Minbar bear examples of
Almoravid Kufic.
The Kufic script of the
Almoravid dinar
The Almoravid dinar () was a gold dinar coin minted under the Almoravid dynasty in the Maghreb and Iberian Peninsula, Iberia (al-Andalus). The mints that produced them were supplied by the West African gold mines south of the Sahara desert.{{Cite ...
was imitated in a ''
maravedí
The ''maravedí'' () or ''maravedi'' (), deriving from the Almoravid dinar (), was the name of various Iberian coins of gold and then silver between the 11th and 14th centuries, and the name of different Iberian accounting units between the 11t ...
'' issued by
Alfonso VIII of Castile
Alfonso VIII (11 November 11555 October 1214), called the Noble (El Noble) or the one of Las Navas (el de las Navas), was King of Castile from 1158 to his death and King of Toledo. After having suffered a great defeat with his own army at Alarc ...
.
The minbar of the
al-Qarawiyyin Mosque, created in 1144, was the "last major testament of Almoravid patronage," and features what is now called
Maghrebi thuluth, an interpretation of Eastern ''
thuluth
''Thuluth'' (, ' or , '; , ''Sols''; Turkish: ''Sülüs'', from ' "one-third") is an Arabic script variety of Islamic calligraphy. The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new script by curved and oblique lines. In ''Thuluth'', ...
'' and ''
diwani
Diwani is a calligraphic variety of Arabic script, a cursive style developed during the reign of the early Ottoman Turks (16th century - early 17th century). It reached its height of popularity under Süleyman I the Magnificent (1520–1566 ...
'' traditions.
Almohad

Under the
Almohad dynasty
The Almohad Caliphate (; or or from ) or Almohad Empire was a North African Berber Muslim empire founded in the 12th century. At its height, it controlled much of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) and North Africa (the Maghreb).
The Almohad ...
,
Arabic calligraphy
Arabic calligraphy is the artistic practice of penmanship, handwriting and calligraphy based on the Arabic alphabet. It is known in Arabic language, Arabic as ''khatt'' (), derived from the words 'line', 'design', or 'construction'. Kufic is the ...
continued to flourish and a variety of distinct styles developed.
The Almohad caliphs, many of whom were themselves interested in Arabic script, sponsored professional calligraphers, inviting Andalusi scribes and calligraphers to settle in
Marrakesh
Marrakesh or Marrakech (; , ) is the fourth-largest city in Morocco. It is one of the four imperial cities of Morocco and is the capital of the Marrakesh–Safi Regions of Morocco, region. The city lies west of the foothills of the Atlas Mounta ...
, Fes,
Ceuta
Ceuta (, , ; ) is an Autonomous communities of Spain#Autonomous cities, autonomous city of Spain on the North African coast. Bordered by Morocco, it lies along the boundary between the Mediterranean Sea and the Atlantic Ocean. Ceuta is one of th ...
, and
Rabat
Rabat (, also , ; ) is the Capital (political), capital city of Morocco and the List of cities in Morocco, country's seventh-largest city with an urban population of approximately 580,000 (2014) and a metropolitan population of over 1.2 million. ...
.
The Almohad caliph
Abu Hafs Umar al-Murtada established the first public manuscript transcription center at the madrasa of his mosque in Marrakesh (now the
Ben Youssef Madrasa).
The Maghrebi thuluth script was appropriated and adopted as an official "dynastic brand" used in different media, from manuscripts to coinage to fabrics.
The Almohads also illuminated certain words or phrases for emphasis with
gold leaf
upA gold nugget of 5 mm (0.2 in) in diameter (bottom) can be expanded through hammering into a gold foil of about 0.5 m2 (5.4 sq ft). The Japan.html" ;"title="Toi gold mine museum, Japan">Toi gold mine museum, Japan.
Gold leaf is gold that has ...
and
lapis lazuli
Lapis lazuli (; ), or lapis for short, is a deep-blue metamorphic rock used as a semi-precious stone that has been prized since antiquity for its intense color. Originating from the Persian word for the gem, ''lāžward'', lapis lazuli is ...
.
For centuries, the Maghrebi script was used to write Arabic
manuscript
A manuscript (abbreviated MS for singular and MSS for plural) was, traditionally, any document written by hand or typewritten, as opposed to mechanically printed or reproduced in some indirect or automated way. More recently, the term has ...
s that were traded throughout the Maghreb.
According to , there were 104 paper mills in
Fes under the reign of
Yusuf Ibn Tashfin
Yusuf ibn Tashfin, also Tashafin, Teshufin, (; reigned c. 1061 – 1106) was a Sanhaja leader of the Almoravid Empire. He cofounded the city of Marrakesh and led the Muslim forces in the Battle of Sagrajas.
Yusuf ibn Tashfin came to al-And ...
in the 11th century, and 400 under the reign of Sultan
Yaqub al-Mansur
Abū Yūsuf Yaʿqūb ibn Yūsuf ibn Abd al-Muʾmin al-Manṣūr (; d. 23 January 1199), commonly known as Yaqub al-Mansur () or Moulay Yacoub (), was the third Almohad caliph. Succeeding his father, al-Mansur reigned from 1184 to 1199. His reig ...
in the 12th century.
Nasrid

In the
Emirate of Granada
The Emirate of Granada, also known as the Nasrid Kingdom of Granada, was an Emirate, Islamic polity in the southern Iberian Peninsula during the Late Middle Ages, ruled by the Nasrid dynasty. It was the last independent Muslim state in Western ...
under the
Nasrid dynasty
The Nasrid dynasty ( ''banū Naṣr'' or ''banū al-Aḥmar''; ) was an Arab dynasty that ruled the Emirate of Granada from 1232 to 1492. It was the last Muslim dynasty in the Iberian Peninsula. Twenty-three sultans ruled Granada from the foun ...
, and particularly under
Yusuf I and
Muhammad V, Arabic
epigraphy
Epigraphy () is the study of inscriptions, or epigraphs, as writing; it is the science of identifying graphemes, clarifying their meanings, classifying their uses according to dates and cultural contexts, and drawing conclusions about the wr ...
further developed.
Kufic inscriptions developed extended vertical strokes forming ribbon-like decorative knots.
Kufic script also had "an enormous influence on the decorative and graphic aspects of Christian art."
Aljamiado
In Iberia, the Arabic script was used to write
Romance language
The Romance languages, also known as the Latin or Neo-Latin languages, are the languages that are Language family, directly descended from Vulgar Latin. They are the only extant subgroup of the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-E ...
s such as
Mozarabic,
Portuguese,
Spanish
Spanish might refer to:
* Items from or related to Spain:
**Spaniards are a nation and ethnic group indigenous to Spain
**Spanish language, spoken in Spain and many countries in the Americas
**Spanish cuisine
**Spanish history
**Spanish culture
...
or
Ladino. This writing system was referred to as ''
Aljamiado
'' Castillian translations in Aljamiado script above each line of Arabic Quranic text.
file:Aljamiado.png">Aljamiado text by Mancebo de Arévalo. c. 16th century.
''Poema de Yuçuf''
''Aljamiado'' (; ; trans. ''ʿajamiyah'' ) or ''Aljamía ...
'', from ''
ʿajamiyah'' ().
Fesi Andalusi script
Waves of migration from Iberia throughout the history of al-Andalus impacted writing styles in North Africa.
Ibn Khaldun
Ibn Khaldun (27 May 1332 – 17 March 1406, 732–808 Hijri year, AH) was an Arabs, Arab Islamic scholar, historian, philosopher and sociologist. He is widely acknowledged to be one of the greatest social scientists of the Middle Ages, and cons ...
noted that the Andalusi script further developed under the
Marinid dynasty
The Marinid dynasty ( ) was a Berbers, Berber Muslim dynasty that controlled present-day Morocco from the mid-13th to the 15th century and intermittently controlled other parts of North Africa (Algeria and Tunisia) and of the southern Iberian P ...
(1244–1465), when Fes received
Andalusi refugees.
In addition to Fes, the script flourished in cities such as Ceuta,
Taza
Taza () is a city in northern Morocco occupying the corridor between the Rif mountains and Middle Atlas mountains, about 120 km east of Fez and 150 km south of Al Hoceima. It recorded a population of 148,406 in the 2019 Moroccan ...
,
Meknes
Meknes (, ) is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco, located in northern central Morocco and the sixth largest city by population in the kingdom. Founded in the 11th century by the Almoravid dynasty, Almoravids as a military settlement, Mekne ...
,
Salé
Salé (, ) is a city in northwestern Morocco, on the right bank of the Bou Regreg river, opposite the national capital Rabat, for which it serves as a commuter town. Along with some smaller nearby towns, Rabat and Salé form together a single m ...
, and Marrakesh, although the script experienced a regression in rural areas far from the centers of power.
The Fesi script spread throughout much of the Islamic west. gives the exception of the region around
Algiers
Algiers is the capital city of Algeria as well as the capital of the Algiers Province; it extends over many Communes of Algeria, communes without having its own separate governing body. With 2,988,145 residents in 2008Census 14 April 2008: Offi ...
, which was more influenced by the African script of Tunisia.
noted that Maghrebi script essentially reached its final form during the Marinid period, as it became independent of the Andalusi script.
There were three forms of Maghrebi script in use: one in urban centers such as those previously mentioned, one in rural areas used to write in both
Arabic
Arabic (, , or , ) is a Central Semitic languages, Central Semitic language of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family spoken primarily in the Arab world. The International Organization for Standardization (ISO) assigns lang ...
and
Amazigh
Berbers, or the Berber peoples, also known as Amazigh or Imazighen, are a diverse grouping of distinct ethnic groups indigenous to North Africa who predate the arrival of Arabs in the Maghreb. Their main connections are identified by their u ...
, and one that preserved Andalusi features.
Maghrebi script was also divided into different varieties: Kufic, mabsūt, mujawhar, Maghrebi thuluth, and musnad (z'mami).
Saadi reforms
The reforms in the
Saadi period (1549–1659) affected manuscript culture and calligraphy.
The Saadis founded centers for learning calligraphy, including the madrasa of the
Mouassine Mosque, which was directed by a dedicated calligrapher as was the custom in the .
Sultan
Ahmad al-Mansur
Ahmad al-Mansur (; 1549 – 25 August 1603), also known by the nickname al-Dhahabī () was the Saadi Sultanate, Saadi Sultan of Morocco from 1578 to his death in 1603, the sixth and most famous of all rulers of the Saadis. Ahmad al-Mansur was an ...
himself was proficient in Maghrebi thuluth, and even invented a secret script for his private correspondences.
Decorative scripts flourished under the Saadi dynasty and were used in architecture, manuscripts, and coinage.
Alawi era

Maghrebi script was supported by the 17th-century
Alawite
Alawites () are an Arabs, Arab ethnoreligious group who live primarily in the Levant region in West Asia and follow Alawism, a sect of Islam that splintered from early Shia as a ''ghulat'' branch during the ninth century. Alawites venerate A ...
sultans
Al-Rashid and
Ismail.
Under the reign of Sultan
Muhammad III, the script devolved into an unrefined, illegible ''
badawi'' script () associated with rural areas.
Under Sultan
Suleiman
Suleiman (; or dictionary.reference.comsuleiman/ref>) is the Arabic name of the Jewish and Quranic king and Islam, Islamic prophet Solomon (name), Solomon.
Suleiman the Magnificent (1494–1566) was the longest-reigning sultan of the Ottoman E ...
, the script improved in urban areas and particularly in the capital
Meknes
Meknes (, ) is one of the four Imperial cities of Morocco, located in northern central Morocco and the sixth largest city by population in the kingdom. Founded in the 11th century by the Almoravid dynasty, Almoravids as a military settlement, Mekne ...
.
Meanwhile, Rabat and Salé preserved some features of Andalusi script, and some rural areas such as
Dukāla,
Beni Zied, and
al-Akhmas excelled in the Maghrebi script.
The script quality then regressed again, which led
Ahmed ibn Qassim ar-Rifā'ī ar-Ribātī to start a script reform and standardization movement as
Ibn Muqla
Abu Ali Muhammad ibn Ali ibn Muqla (; 885/6 – 20 July 940/1), commonly known as Ibn Muqla, was an official of the Abbasid Caliphate who rose to high state posts in the early 10th century. His career culminated in his own assumption of the v ...
and
Ibn al-Bawwab had done in the ''
Mashriq
The Mashriq (; ), also known as the Arab Mashriq (), sometimes spelled Mashreq or Mashrek, is a term used by Arabs to refer to the eastern part of the Arab world, as opposed to the Maghreb (western) region, and located in West Asia and easter ...
''.
He authored ''
Stringing the Pearls of the Thread'' (), a book in the form of an ''
urjuza'' on the rules of Maghrebi script.
Muhammad Bin Al-Qasim al-Qundusi, active in Fes from 1828–1861, innovated a unique style known as ''al-Khatt al-Qundusi'' ().
After introduced the first Arabic
lithographic
Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German ...
printing press to Morocco in 1864, the ''mujawher'' variety of the Maghrebi script became the standard for printing body text, although other varieties were also used.
Colonial period
The
French Protectorate in Morocco
The French protectorate in Morocco, also known as French Morocco, was the period of French colonial rule in Morocco that lasted from 1912 to 1956. The protectorate was officially established 30 March 1912, when List of rulers of Morocco, Sultan ...
represented a crisis for Maghrebi script, as
Latin script
The Latin script, also known as the Roman script, is a writing system based on the letters of the classical Latin alphabet, derived from a form of the Greek alphabet which was in use in the ancient Greek city of Cumae in Magna Graecia. The Gree ...
became dominant in
education
Education is the transmission of knowledge and skills and the development of character traits. Formal education occurs within a structured institutional framework, such as public schools, following a curriculum. Non-formal education als ...
and public life, and the
Moroccan Nationalist Movement
The Moroccan Nationalist Movement () was an Arab nationalist and Pan-Arabist political movement in Morocco that opposed the French protectorate. It was nominally led by the Moroccan sultan Mohammed bin Youssef. Most of its leaders were from th ...
fought to preserve Maghrebi script in response.
In 1949, Muhammad bin al-Hussein as-Sūsī and
Antonio García Jaén published ''Ta'līm al-Khatt al-Maghrebi'' () a series of five booklets teaching Maghrebi script printed in Spain.
Additionally, books from the
Mashreq printed in
''naskh'' scripts were imported for use in schools and universities, and handwriting began to be taught with mashreqi letter forms.
Post-independence
In the period after independence, there were a number of initiatives to modernize Arabic script to suit the
typewriter
A typewriter is a Machine, mechanical or electromechanical machine for typing characters. Typically, a typewriter has an array of Button (control), keys, and each one causes a different single character to be produced on paper by striking an i ...
, prominent among which was that of the Moroccan linguist of the
Institute for Studies and Research on Arabization The Institute for Studies and Research on Arabization (, or ) is an institute dedicated to Arabization in Rabat, Morocco created by decree January 14, 1960.
History
In 1960, the Moroccan government created the Institute for Studies and Research ...
: Standard Arabic Script ().
Recently
In 2007,
Muḥammad al-Maghrāwī and cowrote ''
Maghrebi Script: History, Present, and Horizons'' ().
The following year, the
Muhammad VI Prize for the Art of Maghrebi Script, organized by the , was announced.
In early 2020, the President of Tunisia,
Kais Saied
Kais Saied ( ; born 22 February 1958) is a Tunisian politician, jurist and retired assistant professor of law currently serving as the fifth president of Tunisia since October 2019. He was president of the Tunisian Association of Constitutional ...
, garnered significant media attention for his handwritten official letters in the Maghrebi script.
Variations
In the book ''al-Khat al-Maghrebi'', five main subscripts of Maghrebi script are identified:
# Maghrebi Kufic () variations of
Kufic script
The Kufic script () is a style of Arabic script, that gained prominence early on as a preferred script for Quran transcription and architectural decoration, and it has since become a reference and an archetype for a number of other Arabic scripts ...
used in the
Maghreb
The Maghreb (; ), also known as the Arab Maghreb () and Northwest Africa, is the western part of the Arab world. The region comprises western and central North Africa, including Algeria, Libya, Mauritania, Morocco, and Tunisia. The Maghreb al ...
and
al-Andalus
Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
.
#*Almoravid Kufic () a decorative script that does not receive
Arabic diacritics
The Arabic script has numerous diacritics, which include consonant pointing known as (, ), and supplementary diacritics known as (, ). The latter include the vowel marks termed (, ; , ', ).
The Arabic script is a modified abjad, where all ...
. It was used in
coin minting and is usually accompanied by fine floral designs. The
Almoravid minbar of the
Kutubiyya Mosque
The Kutubiyya Mosque or Koutoubia Mosque ( ) is the largest mosque in Marrakesh, Morocco. It is located in the southwest medina quarter of Marrakesh, near the Jemaa el-Fnaa market place, and is flanked by large gardens.
The mosque was founded i ...
in Marrakesh features a fine example.
#*Almohad Kufic ()
#*Marinid Kufic ()
#*Alawite Kufic ()
#*Qayrawani Kufic ()
#*Pseudo Kufic ()
#''Mabsout'' () script, used for
body text
__NOTOC__
Body text or body copy, or running text, is the text forming the main content of a book, magazine, web page, or any other printed or digital work. This is as a contrast to both additional components such as headings, images, charts, foot ...
and to write the Quran, similar in usage to the eastern
Naskh.
#*Andalusi Mabsout
#*Saadi Mabsout
#*Alawite Mabsout
#''Mujawher'' () cursive script, mainly used by the king to announce laws.
This is the script that was used for body text when
lithographic
Lithography () is a planographic method of printing originally based on the immiscibility of oil and water. The printing is from a stone (lithographic limestone) or a metal plate with a smooth surface. It was invented in 1796 by the German ...
prints started to be produced in Fes.
#''Thuluth Maghrebi'' () script, formerly called Mashreqi (مشرقي) or Maghrebized Mashreqi (مشرقي متمغرب) a script inspired by the Mashreqi
Thuluth
''Thuluth'' (, ' or , '; , ''Sols''; Turkish: ''Sülüs'', from ' "one-third") is an Arabic script variety of Islamic calligraphy. The straight angular forms of Kufic were replaced in the new script by curved and oblique lines. In ''Thuluth'', ...
script.
It is mainly used as a decorative script for book titles and walls in mosques. It was used as an official script by the
Almohads
The Almohad Caliphate (; or or from ) or Almohad Empire was a North African Berber Muslim empire founded in the 12th century. At its height, it controlled much of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) and North Africa (the Maghreb).
The Almohad ...
.
#''Musnad'' () script, or Z'mami () script, a cursive script mainly used by courts and notaries in writing marriage contracts.
This script is derived from ''Mujawher'', and its letters in this script lean to the right.
Because is difficult to read, this script was used to write texts that the author wanted to keep obscure, such as texts about sorcery.
In addition,
Muhammad Bin Al-Qasim al-Qundusi, a 19th-century Sufi calligrapher based in Fes, developed a flamboyant style now known as ''Qandusi'' () script.
Among the publications of , a 19th-century French
orientalist, dealing with the subject of Maghrebi script, there are ''
Essai sur l'Ecriture Maghrebine'' (1886)
and
''Recueil de Lettres Arabes Manuscrites'' (1891). In 1886, he identified 4 main subscripts within the Maghrebi script family:
*''Qairawani—"''smooth and even''"
''
* ''Andalusi—''"small, compact, and jerky"
*''Fasi—''"large, round, and elegant"''
''
*''Sudani—''"thicker and blacker"''
''
West African Maghrebi scripts
Various West African Arabic scripts, also called
''Sudani'' scripts (in reference to
''Bilad as-Sudan''), also fall under the category of Maghrebi scripts, including:
*''Suqi'' () named after the town of
Suq, though also used in
Timbuktu
Timbuktu ( ; ; Koyra Chiini: ; ) is an ancient city in Mali, situated north of the Niger River. It is the capital of the Tombouctou Region, one of the eight administrative regions of Mali, having a population of 32,460 in the 2018 census.
...
. It is associated with the
Tuareg people
The Tuareg people (; also spelled Twareg or Touareg; Endonym and exonym, endonym, depending on Tuareg languages#Subclassification, variety: ''Imuhaɣ'', ''Imušaɣ'', ''Imašeɣăn'' or ''Imajeɣăn'') are a large Berbers, Berber ethnic group, ...
.
*''Fulani'' ()
*''Hausawi'' ()
*Mauretanian ''Baydani'' ()
*''Kanemi'' () or Kanawi, is associated with the region of
Kano in modern-day Chad and northern Nigeria, associated with
Borno—also ''Barnawi'' script
*Saharan
سورة الأعراف مكتوبة بالخط السوقي ٣.jpg, ''Suqi'' script
مصحف مخطوط بالخط الفولاني ٢.jpg, ''Fulani'' script
مصحف نيجيري مطبوع بالمطبعة الحجرية بخط هاوساوي ٢.jpg, ''Hausawi'' script
مصحف مخطوط بالخط البيضاني ٢.jpg, ''Baydani'' script
كنوز الإسلام في إفريقيا - 39.jpg, ''Kanemi'' script
Contrast with Mashreqi scripts
One of the prominent ways Maghrebi scripts differ from scripts of the Arabic-speaking East is the dotting of the letters
''faa'' () and ''
qoph
Qoph is the nineteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ''qōp'' 𐤒, Hebrew ''qūp̄'' , Aramaic ''qop'' 𐡒, Syriac ''qōp̄'' ܩ, and Arabic ''qāf'' . It is also related to the Ancient North Arabian , South Arabian ...
'' (). In eastern tradition, the ''faa'' is represented by a circle with a dot above, while in Maghrebi scripts the dot goes below the circle ().
In eastern scripts, the ''qoph'' is represented by a circle with two dots above it, whereas the Maghrebi ''qoph'' is a circle with just one dot above (), similar to the eastern ''faa''.
In fact, concerns over the preservation of Maghrebi writing traditions played a part in the reservations of the Moroccan
ulama
In Islam, the ''ulama'' ( ; also spelled ''ulema''; ; singular ; feminine singular , plural ) are scholars of Islamic doctrine and law. They are considered the guardians, transmitters, and interpreters of religious knowledge in Islam.
"Ulama ...
against importing the printing press.
Additionally, Nico van den Boogert notes that in Maghrebi script:
* the loop of
Ṣād
Tsade (also spelled , , , , tzadi, sadhe, tzaddik) is the eighteenth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ''ṣādē'' 𐤑, Hebrew ''ṣādī'' , Aramaic ''ṣāḏē'' 𐡑, Syriac ''ṣāḏē'' ܨ, Ge'ez ''ṣädäy'' ጸ, an ...
() and
Ḍād
() is the fifteenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, one of the six letters not in the twenty-two akin to the Phoenician alphabet (the others being , , , , ). In name and shape, it is a variant of . Its numerical value is 800 (see Abjad numerals ...
()has no "tooth"
* the stems of alif (),
lam (),
lamalif (),
Ṭāʾ
Teth, also written as or Tet, is the ninth Letter (alphabet), letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician alphabet, Phoenician ''ṭēt'' 𐤈, Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew, Aramaic alphabet, Aramaic
''ṭēṯ'' 𐡈, and Syriac alphabet, ...
(), and
Ẓāʾ
, or (), is the seventeenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, one of the six letters not in the twenty-two akin to the Phoenician alphabet (the others being , , , , ). In name and shape, it is a variant of . Its numerical value is 900 (see Abjad n ...
() are drawn with a knot at the end
* the stems of
Ṭāʾ
Teth, also written as or Tet, is the ninth Letter (alphabet), letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician alphabet, Phoenician ''ṭēt'' 𐤈, Hebrew alphabet, Hebrew, Aramaic alphabet, Aramaic
''ṭēṯ'' 𐡈, and Syriac alphabet, ...
(), and
Ẓāʾ
, or (), is the seventeenth letter of the Arabic alphabet, one of the six letters not in the twenty-two akin to the Phoenician alphabet (the others being , , , , ). In name and shape, it is a variant of . Its numerical value is 900 (see Abjad n ...
() are drawn diagonally
* the final
alif
Alif may refer to:
Languages
* Alif (ا) in the Arabic alphabet#Alif, Arabic alphabet, equivalent to aleph, the first letter of many Semitic alphabets
** Dagger alif, superscript alif in Arabic alphabet
* Alif, the first letter of the Urdu alpha ...
() is written top-to-bottom
* the final and isolated
dāl
Dalet (, also spelled Daleth or Daled) is the fourth letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ' 𐤃, Hebrew , Aramaic ' 𐡃, Syriac ' ܕ, and Arabic (in abjadi order; 8th in modern order). Its sound value is the voiced alveol ...
() and
dhāl () resemble initial and medial
Kaph
Kaph (also spelled kaf) is the eleventh letter of the Semitic abjads, including Phoenician ''kāp'' 𐤊, Hebrew ''kāp̄'' , Aramaic ''kāp'' 𐡊, Syriac ''kāp̄'' ܟ, and Arabic ''kāf'' (in abjadi order). It is also related to the Anc ...
()
Additionally, Maghrebi scripts differ from Mashreqi scripts in that Maghrebi scripts are traditionally written with a pointed tip instead of a chisel tip. As a result, Maghrebi scripts typically have less contrast in line thickness than Mashreqi scripts, which have wider horizontal strokes and thinner vertical strokes.
Gallery
File:Folio Blue Quran Met 2004.88.jpg, Blue Qur'an, 9th to early 10th-century, from either al-Andalus or Tunisia.
File:Bifolium Mushal al-Hadina Quran Met 2007.191.jpg, The Zirid " Nurse's Quran." Qairawan, early 11th century.
File:مصحف مرابطي أو موحدي 03.jpg, Almoravid-Almohad
The Almohad Caliphate (; or or from ) or Almohad Empire was a North African Berber Muslim empire founded in the 12th century. At its height, it controlled much of the Iberian Peninsula (Al-Andalus) and North Africa (the Maghreb).
The Almohad ...
period
File:Moroccan Qur'an Manuscript, c. 1300 02.jpg, Moroccan Quran from around 1300.
File:Folio Quran Met 42.63.jpg, Andalusi Quran, late 13th–early 14th century.
File:المصحف الوردي 02.jpg, A page of the Pink Quran with illuminated
Illuminated may refer to:
* Illuminated (song), "Illuminated" (song), by Hurts
* Illuminated Film Company, a British animation house
* ''Illuminated'', alternative title of Black Sheep (Nat & Alex Wolff album)
* Illuminated manuscript
See also diacritics. Al-Andalus
Al-Andalus () was the Muslim-ruled area of the Iberian Peninsula. The name refers to the different Muslim states that controlled these territories at various times between 711 and 1492. At its greatest geographical extent, it occupied most o ...
14th century.
File:Page from Quran of Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II 1405.jpg, Hafsid Quran donated to the Kasbah Mosque by Caliph Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II
Abu Faris Abd al-Aziz II () (reigned 1394–1434) was a Hafsid Caliph of Ifriqiya.
Life
He proceeded to further consolidate the kingdom after his father Abu al-Abbas Ahmad II had restored its integrity. A strong monarch and an orthodox Musli ...
in 1405.
File:مصحف مغربي 01.jpg, 17th or 18th century Moroccan Quran
File:A Manuscript of Five Sections of a Qur'an MET sf1982-120-2-first.jpg, 18th century Moroccan Quran.
File:Al-Fatiha in the Sudani script (CBL Is 1598, f. 1b).jpg, Al-Fatiha
Al-Fatiha () is the first chapter () of the Quran. It consists of seven verses (') which consist of a prayer for guidance and mercy.
Al-Fatiha is recited in Muslim obligatory and voluntary prayers, known as ''salah''. The primary literal mea ...
in the Sudani script. North-west Africa, 19th century. Chester Beatty Library
The Chester Beatty Library, now known as the Chester Beatty, is a museum and library in Dublin. It was established in Ireland in 1953, to house the collections of mining magnate, Sir Alfred Chester Beatty. The present museum, on the grounds of ...
File:مصحف مخطوط بالخط المغربي المبسوط ٤.jpg, Quran in ''mabsūt'' script
See also
*
Rashi script
*
Tifinagh
Tifinagh ( Tuareg Berber language: ; Neo-Tifinagh: ; Berber Latin alphabet: ; ) is a script used to write the Berber languages. Tifinagh is descended from the ancient Libyco-Berber alphabet. The traditional Tifinagh, sometimes called Tuareg Tifi ...
References
*O. Houdas, "Essai sur l'écriture maghrebine", in ''Nouveaux mélanges orientaux'', IIe série vol. xix., Publications des Langues Vivantes Orientales (Paris 1886)
*N. van den Boogert
on the origin of Maghribi script
External links
Arabic articleExample of a Quran in Maghrebi script
{{Islamic calligraphy
Arabic calligraphy
Islamic culture
Maghrebi Arabic
Culture of Morocco
Culture of Algeria
Culture of Tunisia
Culture of Mali