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Nanjing was the name for modern
Beijing } Beijing ( ; ; ), alternatively romanized as Peking ( ), is the capital of the People's Republic of China. It is the center of power and development of the country. Beijing is the world's most populous national capital city, with over 21 ...
during the Khitan-led
Liao dynasty The Liao dynasty (; Khitan: ''Mos Jælud''; ), also known as the Khitan Empire (Khitan: ''Mos diau-d kitai huldʒi gur''), officially the Great Liao (), was an imperial dynasty of China that existed between 916 and 1125, ruled by the Yelü ...
of China, when the city was the empire's southern capital. To distinguish ''Nanjing'', which literally means "Southern Capital" in Chinese, from modern
Nanjing Nanjing (; , Mandarin pronunciation: ), alternately romanized as Nanking, is the capital of Jiangsu province of the People's Republic of China. It is a sub-provincial city, a megacity, and the second largest city in the East China region. T ...
in
Jiangsu Province Jiangsu (; ; pinyin: Jiāngsū, alternatively romanized as Kiangsu or Chiangsu) is an eastern coastal province of the People's Republic of China. It is one of the leading provinces in finance, education, technology, and tourism, with its ca ...
and Beijing Damingfu, the name for modern Daming County in
Hebei Province Hebei or , (; alternately Hopeh) is a northern province of China. Hebei is China's sixth most populous province, with over 75 million people. Shijiazhuang is the capital city. The province is 96% Han Chinese, 3% Manchu, 0.8% Hui, an ...
during the
Northern Song dynasty Northern may refer to the following: Geography * North, a point in direction * Northern Europe, the northern part or region of Europe * Northern Highland, a region of Wisconsin, United States * Northern Province, Sri Lanka * Northern Range, a ra ...
, Chinese historians sometimes refer to Beijing during the Liao dynasty as Liao Nanjing (). The Liao dynasty acquired the city, then known as
Youzhou You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...
, in the cession of the Sixteen Prefectures in 938 by the Later Jin dynasty, one of the five short-lived dynasties that ruled northern China following the end of the
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
. The city was officially renamed Nanjing, Youdu Fu (南京幽都府). In 1012, the city was renamed Nanjing, Xijin Fu (南京析津府). The city was also colloquially referred to at the time as
Yanjing Ji or Jicheng was an ancient city in northern China, which has become the longest continuously inhabited section of modern Beijing. Historical mention of Ji dates to the founding of the Zhou dynasty in about 1045BC. Archaeological finds in sout ...
. In 1122, the city was captured by the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty and was officially renamed Yanjing, ending the use of Nanjing for what is today modern Beijing.


Location and orientation

Liao Nanjing is located in the southwestern portion of modern Beijing, in the southern half of
Xicheng District Xicheng District () is a district of Beijing. Xicheng District spans , covering the western half of the old city (largely inside the 2nd Ring Road - the eastern half is Dongcheng District, Beijing, Dongcheng District), and has 706,691 inhabitant ...
, which from 1952 to 2010 was known as Xuanwu District).(Chinese
"辽南京与金中都"


Outer walled city

Liao Nanjing inherited the walled city and neighborhood configuration of Youzhou from the earlier
Tang dynasty The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, t= ), or Tang Empire, was an Dynasties in Chinese history, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907 AD, with an Zhou dynasty (690–705), interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dyn ...
. The outer city wall was 36 '' li'' in circumference, though some scholars say it was closer to 25-27 ''li'', 9 meters high and 4.5 meters wide at the top. The city had eight gates (''men''), two each in each cardinal direction: Andongmen and Yingchunmen to the east, Kaiyangmen and Danfengmen to the south, Xianximen and Qingpumen to the west, and Tongtianmen and Gongchenmen to the north. On top of the wall were 910 battle towers. Outside the wall were three layers of moats. Outside Danfengmen was the jiju grounds, where Khitan nobles played an ancient form of polo. Inside the southwest corner of the outer walled city was a rectangular inner walled city, which during the Tang era served as the headquarters of the Lulong commander."辽南京(燕京)皇城"
2002-12-1
The Liao converted this inner city into a walled imperial place, which had four gates. To the south and west, imperial walled city shared gates with the outer walled city, Xianximen and Danfengmen. The north gate of the imperial city was Yabeimen and east gate was Xuanhemen. In keeping with Khitan tradition which orients toward the east, the main gate of the imperial city was Xuanhemen. On top of the Xuanhemen was the Pavilion of Five Phoenix (Wufenglou). From the pavilion, the Khitan ruler could gaze out at the cityscape to the east. Outside of this gate was the Minzhong Temple, now the
Fayuan Temple The Fayuan Temple (), situated in the southwest quarter of central Beijing, is one of the city's oldest and most renowned Buddhist temples. History The Fayuan Temple, originally named the Minzhong Temple, was first built in 645 during the T ...
, the oldest in Beijing. The north wall stretched from the modern day
White Cloud Temple The White Cloud Temple, also known as Baiyun Temple or the Abbey or Monastery of the White Clouds, is a Taoist temple and monastery located in Beijing, China. It is one of "The Three Great Ancestral Courts" of the Quanzhen School of Taoism and i ...
east along Toufa ''
Hutong ''Hutong'' () are a type of narrow street or alley commonly associated with northern Chinese cities, especially Beijing. In Beijing, hutongs are alleys formed by lines of ''siheyuan'', traditional courtyard residences. Many neighbourhoods wer ...
'' (Hair Lane).侯晓晨, "北京的辽代古城遗迹:辽宋大战的高粱河(图)" [3] ''北京青年报''
2009-08-06
Shoushui Hutong, the lane adjacent to Toufa Hutong to the north, once called the Stinking Water River, was likely Liao Nanjing's moat. The east wall was situated just west of Lanman Hutong, which was itself the eastern moat. The Fayuan Temple, some 200 meters west of Lanman Hutong, was encompassed inside the wall. A stone tablet near
Caishikou Caishikou () is a neighborhood in Beijing, situated in Xicheng District. Part of it, known as Caishikou Execution Grounds (菜市口法场), was where most of Beijing's capital punishments were carried out during the Qing Dynasty and were open ...
marks the location of Andongmen, the north gate in the east wall. The south wall was located roughly along modern-day Baizhifang Street. A stone tablet at the intersection of Baizhifang Street and You'anmen Inner Street marks the site of Kaiyangmen, the east gate in the south wall. The west wall extended from the White Cloud Temple to the Xiaohongmiao neighborhood, to the east of the Lianhua River, which functioned as the west moat. Liao Nanjing retained the 26 neighborhood division of the Tang city. The major markets were to the northern part of the city.


Imperial city

Inside the imperial city was the palace complex, which in keeping with Han Chinese tradition, faced the south. The palace complex, like the later
Forbidden City The Forbidden City () is a Chinese palace, palace complex in Dongcheng District, Beijing, China, at the center of the Imperial City, Beijing, Imperial City of Beijing. It is surrounded by numerous opulent imperial gardens and temples includ ...
, had two internal gates facing the south, Xuanjiaomen and Nanduanmen (which were renamed, respectively, Yuanhemen and Qixiamen in 1006). To the east and west were the Zuoyemen and Youyemen, which were renamed Wanchunmen and Qianqiumen in 1006. The palace was located on the same site where
Shi Siming Shi Siming () (19th day of the 1st month, 703? – 18 April 761), or Shi Sugan (), was a Chinese military general, monarch, and politician during the Tang Dynasty who followed his childhood friend An Lushan in rebelling against Tang, and who lat ...
had built his palace when he declared himself emperor in 759, during the
An-Shi Rebellion The An Lushan Rebellion was an uprising against the Tang dynasty of China towards the mid-point of the dynasty (from 755 to 763), with an attempt to replace it with the Yan dynasty. The rebellion was originally led by An Lushan, a general office ...
. Halls in the palace include the Yurong, Xuanhe, Danei and Yongping.


Houses of worship

The city had numerous temples including the Minzhong, Yanshou and Wutian. Among those that survive to this day are the Minzhong Temple, now known as the
Fayuan Temple The Fayuan Temple (), situated in the southwest quarter of central Beijing, is one of the city's oldest and most renowned Buddhist temples. History The Fayuan Temple, originally named the Minzhong Temple, was first built in 645 during the T ...
, the oldest Buddhist Temple in Beijing; the Tianning Temple whose pagoda, built in the Liao era, is among the oldest buildings standing in Beijing; the
Daoist Taoism (, ) or Daoism () refers to either a school of philosophical thought (道家; ''daojia'') or to a religion (道教; ''daojiao''), both of which share ideas and concepts of Chinese origin and emphasize living in harmony with the ''Tao'' ...
White Cloud Temple The White Cloud Temple, also known as Baiyun Temple or the Abbey or Monastery of the White Clouds, is a Taoist temple and monastery located in Beijing, China. It is one of "The Three Great Ancestral Courts" of the Quanzhen School of Taoism and i ...
; and the
Niujie Mosque The Niujie Mosque ( "Oxen Street House of Worship" or "Oxen Street Mosque") is the oldest mosque in Beijing, China. It was first built in 996 during the Liao dynasty and was reconstructed as well as enlarged under the Kangxi Emperor (r. 1661– ...
, founded in 996 by Nazaruddin, an Arab resident, and now the oldest mosque in Beijing.


History

Prior to its cession to the Liao in 938, Youzhou had been regional center in northern China for two millennia. The city, known in earlier eras as Ji, was the capital of the ancient states of Ji and
Yan Yan may refer to: Chinese states * Yan (state) (11th century – 222 BC), a major state in northern China during the Zhou dynasty * Yan (Han dynasty kingdom), first appearing in 206 BC * Yan (Three Kingdoms kingdom), officially claimed indepe ...
, and became under the Tang dynasty an important military command to guard the northern frontier against the Khitan and Xi. After the fall of the Tang in 907, the Khitan leader Yelü Abaoji declared himself emperor in Shangjing (modern-day
Baarin Left Banner Baarin Left Banner ( Mongolian: ''Baɣarin Jegün qosiɣu''; ), or Bairin, is a banner of eastern Inner Mongolia, China, under the administration of the prefecture-level city of Chifeng. The banner spans an area of 6,644 square kilometers, and ...
,
Inner Mongolia Inner Mongolia, officially the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region, is an autonomous region of the People's Republic of China. Its border includes most of the length of China's border with the country of Mongolia. Inner Mongolia also accounts for a ...
) in 918 and began to expand southward. In 936, his son, Yelü Deguang renamed their dynasty, Liao, and in 938 helped
Shi Jingtang Shi Jingtang ( zh, 石敬瑭; 30 March 892 – 28 July 942''Zizhi Tongjian'', vol. 283.), also known by his temple name Gaozu (), was the founding emperor of imperial China's short-lived Later Jin during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms pe ...
, a Shatuo Turk general overthrow the
Later Tang Tang, known in historiography as the Later Tang, was a short-lived imperial dynasty of China and the second of the Five Dynasties during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period in Chinese history. The first three of the Later Tang's four e ...
dynasty and found the Later Jìn dynasty. In exchange for Liao military assistance, Shi Jingtang ceded the
Sixteen Prefectures The Sixteen Prefectures () comprise a historical region in northern China along the Great Wall in present-day Beijing, Tianjin, and northern Hebei and Shanxi. Name It is more specifically called the Sixteen Prefectures of Yan and Yun or the Six ...
along the
Great Wall The Great Wall of China (, literally "ten thousand Li (unit), ''li'' wall") is a series of fortifications that were built across the historical northern borders of ancient Chinese states and Imperial China as protection against Eurasian noma ...
to the Liao. The Liao then made the two principal cities acquired,
Youzhou You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...
(modern Beijing) and Yunzhou (modern
Datong Datong is a prefecture-level city in northern Shanxi Province in the People's Republic of China. It is located in the Datong Basin at an elevation of and borders Inner Mongolia to the north and west and Hebei to the east. As of the 2020 cens ...
), the Southern and Western Capitals of its growing empire. Liao Nanjing administered the empire’s Southern Circuit, which includes predominantly ethnic Han territory south of the
Taihang Mountains The Taihang Mountains () are a Chinese mountain range running down the eastern edge of the Loess Plateau in Shanxi, Henan and Hebei provinces. The range extends over from north to south and has an average elevation of . The principal peak is ...
. Under Liao rule, the population inside the walled city grew from 22,000 in 938 to 150,000 in 1113 (and the population of the surrounding region grew from 100,000 to 583,000) as large numbers of Khitan, Xi, Shiwei and
Balhae Balhae ( ko, 발해, zh, c=渤海, p=Bóhǎi, russian: Бохай, translit=Bokhay, ), also rendered as Bohai, was a multi-ethnic kingdom whose land extends to what is today Northeast China, the Korean Peninsula and the Russian Far East. It wa ...
from the north and Han from the south migrated to the city.


War and peace with the Song

After unifying most of
China proper China proper, Inner China, or the Eighteen Provinces is a term used by some Western writers in reference to the "core" regions of the Manchu-led Qing dynasty of China. This term is used to express a distinction between the "core" regions popu ...
in 960, the
Song dynasty The Song dynasty (; ; 960–1279) was an imperial dynasty of China that began in 960 and lasted until 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song following his usurpation of the throne of the Later Zhou. The Song conquered the rest ...
sought to recapture the lost northern territories. In 979, the Song emperor
Taizong Taizong is the temple name used for several Chinese sovereign, monarchs of China. It may refer to: * Tai Jia ( 16th-century BC), king of the Shang dynasty * Emperor Wen of Han, Liu Heng (202 BC–157 BC, reigned 180 BC–157 BC), also known as E ...
personally led a military expedition that reached and laid siege to Nanjing (
Youzhou You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...
) but was defeated in the decisive
Battle of Gaoliang River The Battle of Gaoliang River () was fought in 979 between the Liao dynasty and Northern Song dynasty in present-day Beijing. The Liao victory ended a Song campaign to recapture the Sixteen Prefectures in North China. After founding the Song ...
, north of the city. In 1004, the Song and Liao signed the Treaty of Chanyuan, and remained at peace for more than a century.


Fall of Liao Nanjing

In 1120, the Song entered the
Alliance on the Sea The Alliance Conducted at Sea () was a political alliance in Chinese history between the Song dynasty, Song and Jin dynasty (1115–1234), Jin dynasties in the early 12th century against the Liao dynasty. The alliance was negotiated from 1115 to 11 ...
with the
Jin dynasty (1115-1234) Jin is a toneless pinyin romanization of various Chinese names and words. These have also been romanized as Kin and Chin (Wade–Giles). "Jin" also occurs in Japanese and Korean. It may refer to: States Jìn 晉 * Jin (Chinese state) (晉國), ...
of the
Jurchens Jurchen (Manchu language, Manchu: ''Jušen'', ; zh, 女真, ''Nǚzhēn'', ) is a term used to collectively describe a number of East Asian people, East Asian Tungusic languages, Tungusic-speaking peoples, descended from the Donghu people. They ...
, a semi-agricultural, forest-dwelling people living northeast of the Liao in modern-day
northeast China Northeast China or Northeastern China () is a geographical region of China, which is often referred to as "Manchuria" or "Inner Manchuria" by surrounding countries and the West. It usually corresponds specifically to the three provinces east of t ...
. The Song and Jin agreed to jointly invade the Liao and split captured territories, with most of the Sixteen Prefectures going to the Song. Under the leadership of
Wanyan Aguda Emperor Taizu of Jin (August 1, 1068 – September 19, 1123), personal name Aguda, sinicised name Min (), was the founder and first emperor of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty of China. He was originally the chieftain of the Wanyan tribe, the most ...
, the founder of the Jin dynasty, the Jurchens captured in rapid succession, Shangjing, Zhongjing and Dongjing, the Liao's Upper, Central and Eastern Capitals.(Chinese
《中国历史历年大事记》"北宋/辽 - 宣和二年 公元1120年 庚子"
Accessed 2014-01-08
In the spring of 1122, the Liao court rallied around Prince Yelü Chun and made him emperor in Nanjing. Yelü Chun rebuffed the Song appeals to surrender. In May, the Song commander
Tong Guan Tong Guan (1054–1126), courtesy name Daofu (), was a Chinese court eunuch, military general, political adviser, and state councillor to Emperor Huizong of the Song dynasty. In the classical novel ''Water Margin'', Tong Guan is fictionalise ...
sent two armies to capture Nanjing, but Zhong Shidao's eastern army was defeated by
Yelü Dashi Yelü Dashi (; alternatively ), courtesy name Zhongde (), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Dezong of Western Liao (), was the founder of the Western Liao dynasty (Qara Khitai). He initially ruled as king from 1124 to 1132, then as e ...
at Baigou (in
Rongcheng County Rongcheng () is a county in central Hebei province, China. It is under the jurisdiction of Baoding prefecture-level city. The area of the county is , while the county seat is located in Rongcheng Town. Administrative divisions Rongcheng County ad ...
, Hebei) and Xin Xingzong's western army was driven back by Xiao Gan at Fancun (in modern
Zhuozhou Zhuozhou (), is a county-level city with 628,000 inhabitants in Hebei province, bordering Beijing to the north. It is administered by Baoding prefecture-level city. Zhuozhou has 3 subdistricts, 6 towns, 5 townships, and 1 development zone. Adm ...
, Hebei). After Yelü Chun died of illness in the early summer, the Empress Dowager Xiao Defei assumed leadership, and Tong Guan sent Liu Yanqing to attack Nanjing in September with 150,000 troops. Gao Feng and Guo Yaoshi, the Liao commanders of Yizhou and Zhuozhou surrendered their respective cities. Guo Yaoshi then led the vanguard of the Song Army in a raid on Nanjing.(Chinese
《中国历史历年大事记》"北宋/辽 - 宣和四年 公元1122年 壬寅"
Accessed 2014-01-08
He sent subordinate Zhen Wuchen with fifty soldiers dressed as city residents to seize and open the Yingchunmen. Guo Yaoshi and the rest of the raiders entered the city, seized the Minzhong Temple and then managed to control seven of the city's eight gates. Empress Xiao refused to surrender or flee. She sent for reinforcements and continued to resist from the imperial city, firing arrows from atop Xuanhemen. After three days of street fighting, Xiao Gan's Four Armies, so called because it consisted of armies of Khitan, Xi, Han and Balhae troops, reached the city, ahead of the main Song Army. They slipped into the city through the Danfengmen, the only gate of the outer walled city not controlled by the Song troops. According to Song battlefield accounts, that gate was not open to the public and overlooked by the raiders. Xiao Gan's reinforcements then emerged from the north and east gates of the imperial city and surprised Guo Yaoshi's who were busy looting while waiting for the main Song Army to arrive. After heavy fighting in the markets in the north of the city, the Song raiders were defeated and trapped. Guo Yaoshi fled by lowering himself from the city wall. Of the 7,000 Song raiders who attacked the city, only 400 managed to escape. Xiao Gan then routed Liu Yanqing's main Song Army. In the winter of 1122, the Jin Army drove through the
Juyong Pass Juyong Pass () is a mountain pass located in the Changping District of Beijing Municipality, over from central Beijing. The Great Wall of China passes through, and the Cloud Platform was built here in the year 1342. Mountain pass Geography ...
and marched on Nanjing from the north. This time, Empress Xiao fled to the steppes and the remaining Liao officials capitulated. Wanyan Aguda allowed the surrendering officials to retain their positions and encouraged refugees to return to the city, which was renamed Yanjing.


Song Yanshan

In the spring of 1123, Wanyan Aguda agreed, as per treaty terms, to hand Yanjing and four other prefectures to the Song in exchange for tribute. The handover occurred after the Jurchens had looted the city's wealth and forced all officials and craftsman to move to the Jin capital at Shangjing (near present-day
Harbin Harbin (; mnc, , v=Halbin; ) is a sub-provincial city and the provincial capital and the largest city of Heilongjiang province, People's Republic of China, as well as the second largest city by urban population after Shenyang and largest ...
).(Chinese
"北宋/辽 - 宣和五年 公元1123年 癸卯"
Accessed 2014-01-08
Thus, the Song, having failed to take the city militarily from the Khitans, managed to purchase Yanjing from the Jurchens. Mote 1999: 209 Song rule of the city, renamed Yanshan (燕山), was short-lived. As the convoy of relocated Nanjing residents passed Pingzhou (near
Qinhuangdao Qinhuangdao (; ) is a port city on the coast of China in northern Hebei. It is administratively a prefecture-level city, about east of Beijing, on the Bohai Sea, the innermost gulf of the Yellow Sea. Its population during the 2020 national ...
) on their way to the Northeast, they persuaded the governor Zhang Jue to restore them to their home town. Zhang Jue, a former Liao official who had surrendered to the Jin dynasty, then switched his allegiance to the Song. The Song Emperor Huizong welcomed his defection, ignoring warnings from his diplomats that the Jurchens would regard the acceptance of defectors as a breach of treaty terms. Zhang Jue was defeated by the Jurchens, and took refuge with Guo Yaoshi at Yanshan. The Song court had Zhang Jue executed to satisfy Jin demands, much to the alarm of Guo Yaoshi and other former Liao officials serving the Song. The Jurchens, sensing Song weakness, used the Zhang Jue incident as a pretext to invade. In 1125, Jin forces defeated Guo Yaoshi at the Battle of the Bai River, on the upper reaches of the
Chaobai River The Chaobai River () is a river in northern China. The river is 458 km long and flows from the confluence of the Chao and Bai Rivers at the Miyun Reservoir in Beijing Municipality through Hebei Province and into the Grand Canal of the Hai R ...
in modern
Miyun County Miyun District () is situated in northeast Beijing. It has an area of and a population of 460,800 (2010 Census). Miyun District government seat is located in Gulou Subdistrict. History Miyun was one of the places where Warlord Feng Yuxiang s ...
."北宋/辽 - 宣和七年 公元1125年 乙巳"
Accessed 2014-01-08
Guo Yaoshi then surrendered Yanshan and then guided the Jin's rapid advance on the Song capital,
Kaifeng Kaifeng () is a prefecture-level city in east-central Henan province, China. It is one of the Eight Ancient Capitals of China, having been the capital eight times in history, and is best known for having been the Chinese capital during the Nort ...
, where the Song Emperor was captured in 1127, ending the Northern Song dynasty. Yanshan was renamed Yanjing.


Conversion into Jin Zhongdu

In 1151, the Jin dynasty moved its capital from Shangjing to Yanjing, renaming the city,
Zhongdu Zhongdu (, lit. "Central Capital") was the capital of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in medieval China. It was located in the southwestern part of Beijing's Xicheng District. It had a population of nearly one million by the late 12th century, and ...
. The Jurchens expanded the city to the west, east and south. Liao Nanjing's northern wall was extended to the east and west with Tongtianmen renamed Tongxuanmen and Gongchenmen renamed Chongzhimen. Danfengmen, which was a gate in the southern wall of Liao Nanjing and its imperial city, became the southern gate of Zhongdu's imperial city, and renamed Xuanyangmen.


See also

*
History of Beijing The city of Beijing has a long and rich history that dates back over 3,000 years. Prior to the unification of China by the Qin Shi Huang, First Emperor in 221 BC, Beijing had been for centuries the capital of the ancient states of Ji (state), Ji ...
*
Youzhou You Prefecture or You Province, also known by its Chinese name Youzhou, was a prefecture ('' zhou'') in northern China during its imperial era. "You Province" was cited in some ancient sources as one of the nine or twelve original provinces ...
*
Zhongdu Zhongdu (, lit. "Central Capital") was the capital of the Jurchen-led Jin dynasty in medieval China. It was located in the southwestern part of Beijing's Xicheng District. It had a population of nearly one million by the late 12th century, and ...
*
Khanbaliq Khanbaliq or Dadu of Yuan () was the winter capital of the Yuan dynasty of China in what is now Beijing, also the capital of the People's Republic of China today. It was located at the center of modern Beijing. The Secretariat directly administ ...


Notes


References


Citations


Sources

* * {{Beijing Ancient Chinese capitals 938 establishments 10th-century establishments in China History of Beijing Liao dynasty