Louis the Blind ( – 5 June 928) was

king King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...

Provence Provence is a geographical region and historical province of southeastern France, which stretches from the left bank of the lower Rhône to the west to the France–Italy border, Italian border to the east; it is bordered by the Mediterrane ...

and

Lower Burgundy Lower Burgundy (; ) was a historical region in the early medieval Burgundy, and a distinctive realm known as the ''Kingdom of Lower Burgundy'', that existed from 879 to 933, when it was incorporated into the reunited Kingdom of Burgundy. During t ...

from 890 to 928, and also

king of Italy King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a constitutional monarch if his power is restrained by ...

from 900 to 905, and also the

emperor The word ''emperor'' (from , via ) can mean the male ruler of an empire. ''Empress'', the female equivalent, may indicate an emperor's wife (empress consort), mother/grandmother (empress dowager/grand empress dowager), or a woman who rules ...

between 901 and 905, styled as Louis III. His father was king Boso, from the Bosonid family, and his mother was Ermengard, a

Carolingian The Carolingian dynasty ( ; known variously as the Carlovingians, Carolingus, Carolings, Karolinger or Karlings) was a Frankish noble family named after Charles Martel and his grandson Charlemagne, descendants of the Arnulfing and Pippinid c ...

princess. In 905, he was blinded and lost Italy, retreating to his remaining domains in Provence and Lower Burgundy. In historiography, he is styled as

King of Provence The land of Provence has a history quite separate from that of any of the larger nations of Europe. Its independent existence has its origins in the frontier nature of the dukedom in Merovingian Gaul. In this position, influenced and affected by ...

, or

King of Burgundy The following is a list of the kings of the two kingdoms of Burgundy, and a number of related political entities devolving from Carolingian machinations over family relations. Kings of the Burgundians * Gebicca (late 4th century – c. 40 ...

Early reign

Born c. 880, Louis was the son of Boso, the usurper king of Provence, and Ermengard, a daughter of

Emperor Louis II Louis II (825 – 12 August 875), sometimes called the Younger, was the king of Italy and emperor of the Carolingian Empire from 844, co-ruling with his father Lothair I until 855, after which he ruled alone. Louis's usual title was ''impera ...

.{{sfn, Riché, 1993, p=table 7 Upon Boso's death on 11 January 887, Louis was still a child, and under guardianship of his mother. Instead of unilaterally proclaiming her son as the new king in regions previously held or claimed by his father, she decided to improve Louis′ claims, and thus approached her relative, the emperor

Charles the Fat Charles the Fat (839 – 13 January 888) was the emperor of the Carolingian Empire from 881 to 887. A member of the Carolingian dynasty, Charles was the youngest son of Louis the German and Hemma, and a great-grandson of Charlemagne. He was t ...

. In May, Ermengard traveled to Charles′ court with Louis, and received confirmation of family estates. Charles also adopted Louis, and put both mother and son under his protection.{{sfn, MacLean, 2003, p=162-164 In November 887, emperor Charles was deposed, and died in January 888, but Louis was still young and thus unable to claim royal dignity, while several other regional lords were proclaimed kings in 888: Rudolph I (in

Upper Burgundy Upper Burgundy (; ) was a historical region in the early medieval Burgundy, and a distinctive realm known as the ''Kingdom of Upper Burgundy'', that existed from 888 to 933, when it was incorporated into the reunited Kingdom of Burgundy, that ...

), Odo I (in

West Francia In medieval historiography, West Francia (Medieval Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the West Franks () constitutes the initial stage of the Kingdom of France and extends from the year 843, from the Treaty of Verdun, to 987, the beginning of the Capet ...

) and Berengar I (in

Italy Italy, officially the Italian Republic, is a country in Southern Europe, Southern and Western Europe, Western Europe. It consists of Italian Peninsula, a peninsula that extends into the Mediterranean Sea, with the Alps on its northern land b ...

). In May 889, Ermengard traveled to the court of king

Arnulf Arnulf is a masculine German given name. It is composed of the Germanic elements ''arn'' "eagle" and ''ulf'' "wolf". The ''-ulf, -olf'' suffix was an extremely frequent element in Germanic onomastics and from an early time was perceived as a mere ...

East Francia East Francia (Latin: ) or the Kingdom of the East Franks () was a successor state of Charlemagne's empire created in 843 and ruled by the Carolingian dynasty until 911. It was established through the Treaty of Verdun (843) which divided the for ...

, to make a new submission, while at the same time seeking support of

Pope Stephen V Pope Stephen V (; died 14 September 891) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from September 885 to his death on 14 September 891. In his dealings with Photius I of Constantinople, as in his relations with the young Slavic Ortho ...

for her son. In August 890, at the

Diet Diet may refer to: Food * Diet (nutrition), the sum of the food consumed by an organism or group * Dieting, the deliberate selection of food to control body weight or nutrient intake ** Diet food, foods that aid in creating a diet for weight loss ...

of Valence, a council of

bishop A bishop is an ordained member of the clergy who is entrusted with a position of Episcopal polity, authority and oversight in a religious institution. In Christianity, bishops are normally responsible for the governance and administration of di ...

s and

feudatories A vassal or liege subject is a person regarded as having a mutual obligation to a lord or monarch, in the context of the feudal system in medieval Europe. While the subordinate party is called a vassal, the dominant party is called a suzerain ...

of the realm, after hearing the recommendation of the pope, and receiving notification of Charles the Fat's previous agreement to the proposition, proclaimed Louis as king in

and

.{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334{{sfn, MacLean, 2003, p=164 The short work, '' Visio Karoli Grossi'', may have been written shortly after emperor Charles' death to support Louis's claims. If so, Louis must have had the support of

Fulk the Venerable Fulk the Venerable (died June 17, 900) was archbishop of Reims from 883 until his death. He was a key figure in the political conflicts of the West Frankish kingdom that followed the dissolution of the Carolingian Empire in the late ninth century ...

Archbishop of Reims The Archdiocese of Reims or Rheims (; French language, French: ''Archidiocèse de Reims'') is a Latin Church ecclesiastic territory or archdiocese of the Catholic Church in France. Erected as a diocese around 250 by Sixtus of Reims, the diocese w ...

. On the other hand, the ''Visio'' may have been written later, circa 901, to celebrate (and support) Louis's later imperial coronation in 901. His kingdom was smaller than his father's initial realm, as it did not include

(lost to

Rudolph I of Burgundy Rudolph I ( – 25 October 912) was King of Upper Burgundy from his election in 888 until his death. A member of the elder Welf family, Rudolph was the son of Conrad, Count of Auxerre and Waldrada of Worms. From his father he inherited the l ...

), nor any of West-Frankish Burgundy, absorbed by

Richard the Justiciar Richard the Justiciar (858–921), also known as Richard of Autun, was count of Autun from 880 and the first margrave and duke of Burgundy. He attained suzerainty over all the counties of Burgundy save Mâcon and by 890 he was referred to as ''d ...

Duke of Burgundy Duke of Burgundy () was a title used by the rulers of the Duchy of Burgundy, from its establishment in 843 to its annexation by the Crown lands of France, French crown in 1477, and later by members of the House of Habsburg, including Holy Roman E ...

.{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334 This meant that Louis′ kingdom was restricted to the environs of Vienne and Provençal regions. Since he was still young, local barons elected Ermengard to act as his

regent In a monarchy, a regent () is a person appointed to govern a state because the actual monarch is a minor, absent, incapacitated or unable to discharge their powers and duties, or the throne is vacant and a new monarch has not yet been dete ...

, with the support of Louis's uncle,

. In 894, Louis himself did homage to Arnulf.{{citation needed, date=July 2019 In 896, Louis waged war on the

Saracen upright 1.5, Late 15th-century German woodcut depicting Saracens ''Saracen'' ( ) was a term used both in Greek and Latin writings between the 5th and 15th centuries to refer to the people who lived in and near what was designated by the Rom ...

s. Throughout his reign he fought with these Saracen

pirate Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and valuable goods, or taking hostages. Those who conduct acts of piracy are call ...

s, who had established a base at

Fraxinet Fraxinetum or Fraxinet ( or , from Latin ''fraxinus'': "ash tree", ''fraxinetum'': "ash forest") was the site of a Muslim stronghold at the centre of a frontier state in Provence between about 887 and 972. It is identified with modern La Garde-Fre ...

in 889 and had been raiding the coast of Provence, alarming the local nobility.{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334

Conflict with Berengar

In 900, Louis, as the grandson and heir of the Emperor Louis II, was invited into Italy by various lords, including

Adalbert II, Margrave of Tuscany Adalbert II (c. 875 – 915), called the Rich, son of Adalbert I, Margrave of Tuscany and Rothild of Spoleto. Biography He was a grandson of Boniface II, and was concerned with the troubles of Lombardy, at a time when so many princes were co ...

,{{sfn, Mann, 1925, pp=98, 104 who were suffering under the ravages of the

Magyars Hungarians, also known as Magyars, are an ethnic group native to Hungary (), who share a common culture, language and history. They also have a notable presence in former parts of the Kingdom of Hungary. The Hungarian language belongs to the ...

and the incompetent rule of Berengar I. Louis thus marched his army across the

Alps The Alps () are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. ...

and defeated Berengar, chasing him from

Pavia Pavia ( , ; ; ; ; ) is a town and comune of south-western Lombardy, in Northern Italy, south of Milan on the lower Ticino (river), Ticino near its confluence with the Po (river), Po. It has a population of c. 73,086. The city was a major polit ...

, the old Lombard capital, where, in the church of San Michele, he was crowned with the

Iron Crown of Lombardy The Iron Crown (in Italian, Latin, and Lombard: ''Corona Ferrea''; ) is a reliquary votive crown, traditionally considered one of the oldest royal insignia of Christendom. It was made in the Middle Ages, consisting of a circlet of gold and j ...

on 12 October 900.Duckett, p. 51 He travelled onwards to

Rome Rome (Italian language, Italian and , ) is the capital city and most populated (municipality) of Italy. It is also the administrative centre of the Lazio Regions of Italy, region and of the Metropolitan City of Rome. A special named with 2, ...

, where, in 901, he was crowned emperor by

Pope Benedict IV Pope Benedict IV (; – 30 July 903) was the bishop of Rome and ruler of the Papal States from 1 February 900 to his death. The tenth-century historian Flodoard, who nicknamed him "the Great", commended his noble birth and public generosity. ...

.{{sfn, Mann, 1925, p=104 However, his inability to stem the Magyar incursions and impose any meaningful control over northern Italy saw the Italian nobles quickly abandon his cause and once again align themselves with Berengar. In 902, Berengar defeated Louis's armies and forced him to flee to Provence and promise never to return.{{sfn, Mann, 1925, p=105 In 905, Louis, after again listening to the Italian nobles who were tired of Berengar's rule, this time led by

Adalbert I of Ivrea Adalbert I (died after 28 February 929) was the margrave of Ivrea, the second of the Anscarid dynasty, from the late 890s until his death. In the intermittent civil war which affected Italy from 888 into the 930s, Adalbert initially strove to re ...

,Kleinhenz, Christopher, ''Medieval Italy: an encyclopedia, Volume 2'', (2003), p. 656 launched another attempt to invade Italy.{{sfn, Mann, 1925, p=105 Once again throwing Berengar out of Pavia, he marched and also succeeded in taking

Verona Verona ( ; ; or ) is a city on the Adige, River Adige in Veneto, Italy, with 255,131 inhabitants. It is one of the seven provincial capitals of the region, and is the largest city Comune, municipality in the region and in Northeast Italy, nor ...

{{sfn, Mann, 1925, p=105 with only a small following, after receiving the promise of support from the

, Adalard. Partisans of Berengar in the town soon got word to Berengar of Louis's exposed position at Verona and his limited support. Berengar returned, accompanied by

Bavaria Bavaria, officially the Free State of Bavaria, is a States of Germany, state in the southeast of Germany. With an area of , it is the list of German states by area, largest German state by land area, comprising approximately 1/5 of the total l ...

n troops, and entered Verona in the dead of night. Louis sought sanctuary at the church of St Peter,{{citation needed, date=August 2018 but he was captured. On 21 July 905, Louis had his eyes put out (for breaking his oath),{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334 and was forced to relinquish his royal Italian and imperial crowns. Later, Berengar became emperor. After this last attempt to restore his power over Italy, Louis continued to rule Provence for over twenty years, though his cousinBradbury, Jim, ''The Capetians: kings of France, 987–132'', (2007), p. 63

Hugh Hugh is the English-language variant of the masculine given name , itself the Old French variant of '' Hugo (name)">Hugo'', a short form of Continental Germanic Germanic name">given names beginning in the element "mind, spirit" (Old English ). ...

count of Arles This is a list of the counts of Arles. *Guerin of Provence, Garin, or Warin, (until 853), also ''Guerin'' in French language, French, ''Garí'' in Spanish language, Spanish, and ''Guerí'' in Catalan language, Catalan; also count of Toulouse, duke ...

, was the dominant figure in the territory.{{sfn, Balzaretti, 2016, p=185–208 Louis returned to Vienne, his capital, and by 911, he had put most of the royal powers in the hands of Hugh. Hugh was made Margrave of Provence and Marquis of Vienne and moved the capital to

Arles Arles ( , , ; ; Classical ) is a coastal city and Communes of France, commune in the South of France, a Subprefectures in France, subprefecture in the Bouches-du-Rhône Departments of France, department of the Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur Reg ...

. As regent, Hugh married Louis's sister Willa. Louis lived out his days until his death in obscurity, and through his life he continued to style himself as Roman emperor.{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334 He was succeeded by his brother-in-law in 928.

Marriages and heirs

In 899, Louis III was betrothed to {{ill, Anna (daughter of Leo VI), fr, Anne de Constantinople, lt=Anna of Constantinople, the daughter of

Byzantine Emperor The foundation of Constantinople in 330 AD marks the conventional start of the Eastern Roman Empire, which Fall of Constantinople, fell to the Ottoman Empire in 1453 AD. Only the emperors who were recognized as legitimate rulers and exercised s ...

Leo VI the Wise Leo VI, also known as Leo the Wise (; 19 September 866 – 11 May 912), was Byzantine Emperor from 886 to 912. The second ruler of the Macedonian dynasty (although his parentage is unclear), he was very well read, leading to his epithet. During ...

and his second wife, Zoe Zaoutzaina.Shepard, Jonathan, ''The Cambridge History of the Byzantine Empire'', Cambridge University Press, 2008, p. 423 The evidence for this is a letter by Patriarch

Nicholas Mystikos Nicholas I Mystikos or Mysticus (; 852 – 15 May 925) was the list of ecumenical patriarchs of Constantinople, Ecumenical Patriarch of Constantinople from 1 March 901 to 1 February 907 and from 15 May 912 to his death on 15 May 925. His feast da ...

in which he testifies that Leo VI had united his daughter to a Frank prince, a cousin of Bertha, to whom came later a great misfortune.{{citation needed, date=July 2019 That unfortunate prince could only be Louis III, whose mother Irmingardis was a first cousin of Bertha and who was blinded on 21 July 905.Christian Settipani, ''Nos Ancêtres de l' Antiquité'', pp. 6–7 This betrothal occurred shortly before the fall of

Taormina Taormina ( , , also , ; ) is a ''comune'' (municipality) in the Metropolitan City of Messina, on the east coast of the island of Sicily, Italy. Taormina has been a tourist destination since the 19th century. Its beaches on the Ionian Sea, incl ...

to the

Arabs Arabs (, , ; , , ) are an ethnic group mainly inhabiting the Arab world in West Asia and North Africa. A significant Arab diaspora is present in various parts of the world. Arabs have been in the Fertile Crescent for thousands of yea ...

, and was part of extended diplomatic activities meant to strengthen Byzantine alliances with the western powers to preserve Byzantine territory in southern Italy.{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334 The question of whether the betrothal was ever followed up by an actual marriage is still a matter of some controversy. Louis fathered a son called Charles-Constantine,{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334-335 who would become Count of Vienne. Charles' mother is not named in any sources. There has been modern speculation, proposed by Previté-Orton and championed by

Christian Settipani Christian Settipani (born 31 January 1961) is a French genealogist, historian and IT professional, currently working as the Technical Director of a company in Paris. Biography Settipani holds a Master of Advanced Studies from the Paris-Sorb ...

, that she was Anna,{{sfn, Previté-Orton, 1914, p=703-706{{sfn, Bouchard, 1999, p=334the daughter of Leo VI and Zoe Zaoutzaina, based both upon the documented betrothal, as well on the

onomastic Onomastics (or onomatology in older texts) is the study of proper names, including their etymology, history, and use. An ''alethonym'' ('true name') or an ''orthonym'' ('real name') is the proper name of the object in question, the object of onom ...

evidence, stating that Charles-Constantine's name points to a Byzantine mother. Shaun Tougher doubts they were ever married.Shaun Tougher, ''The Reign of Leo VI (886–912): Politics and People'' (Brill, 1997), p. 148. Detractors of the theory point out that when Anna was born, however, she was the daughter of a concubine who later became empress. Her father, at the time of Charles' birth, was the reigning emperor, therefore the silence of primary sources works against this theory. In addition,

Liutprand of Cremona Liutprand, also Liudprand, Liuprand, Lioutio, Liucius, Liuzo, and Lioutsios ( – 972),"LIUTPRAND OF CREMONA" in ''The Oxford Dictionary of Byzantium'', Oxford University Press, New York & Oxford, 1991, p. 1241. was a historian, diplomat, and t ...

makes no mention of this, and it would have been very interesting to him, given that he was a thorough gossip, had been ambassador to Constantinople and devoted several chapters to the misadventures of Louis in Italy with no mention of these Byzantine connections.

René Poupardin René Poupardin (27 February 1874 – 23 August 1927) was a French medievalist and paleographer whose most important works were on Burgundy, Provence and the south Italian principalities. He was an alumnus of the École nationale des chartes and a ...

believed that Constantine was not a baptismal name, but Settipani disagrees. Richer specifically stated that Charles' ancestry was tainted with illegitimacy and mentioned nothing of his mother's supposed illustrious Byzantine parentage.{{citation needed, date=July 2018 Christian Settipani challenges that theory by stating that the only reason why René Poupardin made him a bastard of Louis III was a passage by Richerius claiming that "Charles Constantine (...) was from a royal race, but which nobility had been vilified by a bastard ancestry remounting to his great-great-grandfather", proving nothing about Charles-Constantine's mother. Such a union would also account for the mention of Greek merchants in Louis’ privilege of 921. In 914, Louis entered a second union, which would then be either his first or second marriage, by marrying Adelaide, daughter of Rudolph I of Upper Burgundy, likely mother of Rudolph, the other documented son of Louis the Blind.{{sfn, Previté-Orton, 1914, p=703-706 In December 915, his daughter, Anna of Provence, married Berengar.{{sfn, Rosenwein, 1996, p=258 It has been suggested, largely for

reasons, that Anna was a daughter of Louis III and his wife Anna, daughter of Leo VI the Wise.{{sfn, Previté-Orton, 1917, p=336 In that case, she would have been betrothed to Berengar while still a child and only become his ''consors'' and ''imperatrix'' in 923.{{sfn, Previté-Orton, 1917, p=336

References

{{Reflist, 2

Sources

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Bosonid dynasty The Bosonids were a dynasty of Carolingian-era counts, dukes, bishops, kings and emperors descended from Boso the Elder and his wife Engeltrude. They married into the Carolingian dynasty and raised to power during the second half of the 9th cen ...

, c. 880, , 5 June, 928 {{s-reg} {{s-bef, before= Boso {{s-ttl, title=

, years=890–928 {{s-aft, after=

{{s-bef, before= Berengar I {{S-dis, title=

King of Italy King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a constitutional monarch if his power is restrained by ...

, years=900–905, by= Berengar I {{s-aft, rows=2, after= Berengar I {{s-bef, before=

{{s-dis, title= (Holy) Roman Emperor, years=901–905, by= Berengar I {{s-break {{s-end {{Holy Roman Emperors {{Antique Kings of Italy {{Carolingians footer {{Authority control {{DEFAULTSORT:Louis the Blind 880s births 928 deaths Year of birth uncertain 10th-century Holy Roman Emperors 9th-century kings of Italy 10th-century kings of Italy Bosonids Frankish warriors Blind royalty and nobility Medieval child monarchs Kings of Lower Burgundy Frankish kings