Lord Edward's Crusade
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Lord Edward's Crusade, sometimes called the Ninth Crusade, was a military expedition to the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
under the command of Prince Edward Longshanks (later king as Edward I) in 1271 – 1272. In practice an extension of the Eighth Crusade, it was the last of the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
to reach the Holy Land before the fall of Acre in 1291 brought an end to the permanent crusader presence there. The crusade saw Edward clash with the Egyptian Mamluk sultan Baibars, with both achieving limited victories. The Crusaders were ultimately forced to withdraw since Edward had pressing concerns at home and felt unable to resolve the internal conflicts within the remnant Outremer territories. It also foreshadowed the imminent collapse of the last remaining crusader strongholds along the Mediterranean coast.


From Dover to Acre

Following the Mamluk victory over the
Mongols Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China ( Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family o ...
in 1260 at the
Battle of Ain Jalut The Battle of Ain Jalut (), also spelled Ayn Jalut, was fought between the Bahri Mamluks of Egypt and the Ilkhanate on 3 September 1260 (25 Ramadan 658 AH) near the spring of Ain Jalut in southeastern Galilee in the Jezreel Valley. It marks ...
by Qutuz and his general Baibars, Qutuz was assassinated, leaving Baibars to claim the sultanate for himself. As sultan, Baibars proceeded to attack the Christian crusaders at Arsuf,
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,
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Jaffa Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...
, Ascalon, and Caesarea. As the Crusader fortress cities fell one by one, the Christians sought help from Europe, but assistance was slow in coming. In 1268, Baibars captured Antioch, thereby destroying the last remnant of the Principality of Antioch, securing the Mamluk northern front and threatening the small Crusader County of Tripoli. With royal and papal approval, Edward "took the cross" on 24 June 1268.Michael Lower, ''The Tunis Crusade of 1270: A Mediterranean History'' (Oxford University Press, 2018), p. 76.
Louis IX of France Louis IX (25 April 1214 – 25 August 1270), also known as Saint Louis, was King of France from 1226 until his death in 1270. He is widely recognized as the most distinguished of the Direct Capetians. Following the death of his father, Louis VI ...
organized a large crusader army with the intent of attacking Egypt, but diverted it instead to
Tunis Tunis (, ') is the capital city, capital and largest city of Tunisia. The greater metropolitan area of Tunis, often referred to as "Grand Tunis", has about 2,700,000 inhabitants. , it is the third-largest city in the Maghreb region (after Casabl ...
. Louis himself died there in 1270. He had loaned Edward 70,000 '' livres tournois'' for his crusade.Lower 2018, p. 104. Edward and his brother
Edmund Edmund is a masculine given name in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and nobles *Ed ...
prepared an expedition to join Louis at Tunis, but it was delayed several times in the summer of 1270 because their father, King
Henry III of England Henry III (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272), also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland, and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death in 1272. The son of John, King of England, King John and Isabella of Ang ...
, could not make up his mind whether to join it or not. On the advice of his councilors, he opted to stay in England and the crusaders embarked at
Dover Dover ( ) is a town and major ferry port in Kent, southeast England. It faces France across the Strait of Dover, the narrowest part of the English Channel at from Cap Gris Nez in France. It lies southeast of Canterbury and east of Maidstone. ...
on 20 August.Lower 2018, pp. 174–76. Unusual for the time, they were accompanied by Edward's wife Eleanor of Castile throughout. There is some debate around the place and month of departure, Portsmouth or Dover, August or September, Dover is certainly more likely, the month less so. Edward traveled slowly through France, arriving in
Aigues-Mortes Aigues-Mortes (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region of southern France. The medieval Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, city walls surrounding th ...
, the same port from which Louis had embarked, in late September (a month later than expected). He went from there to
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
, where he waited a month before crossing to Tunis, where he arrived on 10 November, too late for the fighting. In fact, the Treaty of Tunis that ended the crusade had been signed on 30 October. Although Edward had played no role in its negotiation, the treaty obligated its signatories—
Philip III of France Philip III (1 May 1245 – 5 October 1285), called the Bold (), was King of France from 1270 until his death in 1285. His father, Louis IX, died in Tunis during the Eighth Crusade. Philip, who was accompanying him, returned to France and wa ...
,
Charles I of Sicily Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou or Charles d'Anjou, was King of Sicily from 1266 to 1285. He was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the House of Anjou-Sicily. Between 1246 and ...
and
Theobald II of Navarre Theobald II (6/7 December 1239 – 4/5 December 1270) was King of Navarre and also, as Theobald V, Count of Champagne and Brie (region), Brie, from 1253 until his death. He was the son and successor of Theobald I of Navarre, Theobald I and the s ...
—to prevent Edward from attacking Tunis. Edward was also excluded from receiving a portion of the indemnity paid to the crusaders for leaving.Lower 2018, pp. 134–35. On 18 November, Charles granted Edward a safe-conduct allowing him to stay in Sicily while contemplating his next steps. Although the other crusaders decided each to return home, Edward opted to continue on his way to the Holy Land to assist Bohemund VI, Prince of Antioch and Count of Tripoli, against the Mamluk threat to the remnant of the
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
. On May 9, 1271 Edward finally arrived at AcrePrestwich, p. 75 with a fleet of eight sailing vessels and thirty galleys.Lower 2018, pp. 179–82. He brought a small but not insignificant contingent of no more than 1,000 men, including 225 knights.
Edmund Edmund is a masculine given name in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and nobles *Ed ...
meanwhile left England between 25th February and 4th March 1271. His route is mostly unknown, but we do know he travelled through France as Savoyard archives place him in Saint-Georges-d'Espéranche visiting his great-uncle Philip I, Count of Savoy. Thus making his departure port most likely
Aigues-Mortes Aigues-Mortes (; ) is a Communes of France, commune in the Gard Departments of France, department in the Occitania (administrative region), Occitania region of southern France. The medieval Ramparts of Aigues-Mortes, city walls surrounding th ...
.


Operations in the Holy Land

Edward arrived at Acre while it was still under siege. His arrival caused Baibars to change his plans and turn away from Acre. In the meantime, Edward discovered that the Venetians had a flourishing trade with the Mamluks, providing the latter with timber and metal needed for armaments. In addition, they controlled the slave-trade along with the Genoese, in which they carried Turkish and Tartar slaves from the
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ports to Egypt. However, he could not prevent such businesses, as they had licenses from the High Court at Acre.


Crusader raids

The forces under Edward's command were much too small to take on the Mamluks in a straight battle, being unable to even stop the Mamluks from seizing the nearby Teutonic Montfort Castle. They settled for launching a series of raids, one of which reached Nazareth. The 14th-century English chronicler Walter of Guisborough mentions that Nazareth was captured, a detail not mentioned in sources from the Crusader states themselves. Another raid struck St Georges-de-Lebeyne but accomplished little other than burning some houses and crops, on top of losing a few men to the heat.Tyerman, p. 813 Later, the arrival of additional forces from England and Hugh III of Cyprus, under the command of Edward's younger brother
Edmund Edmund is a masculine given name in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and nobles *Ed ...
, emboldened Edward. He launched a larger raid with the support of the Templar, Hospitaller, and Teutonic Knights on the town of Qaqûn. The Crusaders surprised a large force of Turcomans (mostly itinerant herdsmen), reportedly killing 1,500 of them and taking 5,000 animals as booty. These Turcomans were likely relatively new additions to Baibars' army, being integrated in 1268 and given horses, titles, and lands in return for military service after the Turkmen migrations following the Mongol invasions. Muslim sources list one emir as killed and one as wounded during this raid. On top of that, the Muslim commander of the castle was forced to abandon his command. However, Edward did not take the castle itself and retreated before Baibars could respond in kind (he was with his main army in Aleppo at the time, guarding against the Mongol raid). In December 1271, Edward and his troops saw some action when they repelled an attack by Baibars on the city of Acre.


Mongol raids

As soon as Edward arrived in Acre, he made some attempts to form a
Franco-Mongol alliance Several attempts at a military alliance between the Franks#Crusaders and other Western Europeans as "Franks", Frankish Crusaders and the Mongol Empire against the Islamic caliphates, their common enemy, were made by various leaders among them dur ...
, sending an embassy to the
Mongol Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...
ruler of
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, Abagha, an enemy of the Muslims. The embassy was led by Reginald Rossel, Godefroi of Waus and John of Parker, and its mission was to obtain military support from the Mongols. In an answer dated 4 September 1271, Abagha agreed on cooperation and asked on what date the concerted attack on the Mamluks should take place. At the end of October 1271, a Mongol army arrived in Syria. However Abagha, occupied by other conflicts in Turkestan could only send 10,000 horsemen under general Samagar, a force made up of the occupation army in Seljuk
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and auxiliary Seljukid troops. Despite the relatively small force, their arrival still triggered an exodus of Muslim populations (who remembered the previous campaigns of Kitbuqa) as far south as
Cairo Cairo ( ; , ) is the Capital city, capital and largest city of Egypt and the Cairo Governorate, being home to more than 10 million people. It is also part of the List of urban agglomerations in Africa, largest urban agglomeration in Africa, L ...
. The Mongols defeated the Mamluk Turcoman troops that protected
Aleppo Aleppo is a city in Syria, which serves as the capital of the Aleppo Governorate, the most populous Governorates of Syria, governorate of Syria. With an estimated population of 2,098,000 residents it is Syria's largest city by urban area, and ...
, and raided southwards, sending the other garrisons fleeing for Hama, and devastating the lands down to Apamea. But the Mongols did not stay, and when the Mamluk leader Baibars mounted a counter-offensive from Egypt on 12 November the Mongols had already retreated beyond the
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, laden with booty.


Naval campaign off Cyprus

In the interim, Baibars came to suspect there would be a combined land-sea attack on Egypt. Feeling his position sufficiently threatened, he endeavoured to head off such a manoeuvre by building a fleet. Having finished construction of the fleet, rather than attack the Crusader army directly, Baibars attempted to land on
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
in 1271, hoping to draw Hugh III of Cyprus (the nominal
king of Jerusalem The king or queen of Jerusalem was the supreme ruler of the Kingdom of Jerusalem, a Crusader state founded in Jerusalem by the Latin Church, Latin Catholic leaders of the First Crusade, when the city was Siege of Jerusalem (1099), conquered in ...
) and his fleet out of Acre, with the objective of conquering the island and leaving Edward and the crusader army isolated in the Holy Land. He disguised 17 war galleys as Christian vessels and attacked Limassol. However, in the ensuing naval campaign the fleet was destroyed off the coast of Limassol and Baibars' armies were forced back.


End of the Crusade

Following this victory, Edward realized that to create a force capable of retaking Jerusalem it would be necessary to end the internal unrest within the Christian state, and so he mediated between Hugh and his unenthusiastic
knight A knight is a person granted an honorary title of a knighthood by a head of state (including the pope) or representative for service to the monarch, the church, or the country, especially in a military capacity. The concept of a knighthood ...
s from the Ibelin family of Cyprus. In parallel to the mediation, Edward and Hugh began negotiating a truce with Baibars; a 10-year-10-month-and-10-day agreement was reached in May 1272, at Caesarea. Almost immediately Edmund departed for England, while Edward remained to see if the treaty would hold. The following month, an attempt to assassinate Edward was made, of uncertain origin. According to different versions, the assassin was sent by the
emir Emir (; ' (), also Romanization of Arabic, transliterated as amir, is a word of Arabic language, Arabic origin that can refer to a male monarch, aristocratic, aristocrat, holder of high-ranking military or political office, or other person po ...
of Ramlah or by Baibars. Some legends also say that the assassin was sent by the
Hashshashin The Order of Assassins (; ) were a Nizari Isma'ili order that existed between 1090 and 1275 AD, founded by Hasan al-Sabbah. During that time, they lived in the mountains of Persia and the Levant, and held a strict subterfuge policy througho ...
leader, the "Old Man of the Mountains". Edward killed the assassin but received a festering wound from a poisoned dagger, further delaying his departure. In September 1272, Edward departed Acre for Sicily and, while recuperating on the island, he first received news of the death of his son John, and then a few months later news of the death of his father,
Henry III of England Henry III (1 October 1207 – 16 November 1272), also known as Henry of Winchester, was King of England, Lord of Ireland, and Duke of Aquitaine from 1216 until his death in 1272. The son of John, King of England, King John and Isabella of Ang ...
. In 1273 Edward started his homeward journey via Italy, Gascony and Paris. Edward finally reached England in the middle of 1274, and was crowned King of England on 19 August 1274.


Aftermath

Edward had been accompanied by Theobald Visconti, who became
Pope Gregory X Pope Gregory X (;  – 10 January 1276), born Teobaldo Visconti, was head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 1 September 1271 to his death and was a member of the Third Order of St. Francis. He was elected at the ...
in 1271. Gregory called for a new crusade at the Council of Lyons in 1274, but nothing came of this. Meanwhile, new fissures arose within the Christian states when
Charles of Anjou Charles I (early 1226/12277 January 1285), commonly called Charles of Anjou or Charles d'Anjou, was King of Sicily from 1266 to 1285. He was a member of the royal Capetian dynasty and the founder of the House of Anjou-Sicily. Between 1246 a ...
took advantage of a dispute between Hugh III, the
Knights Templar The Poor Fellow-Soldiers of Christ and of the Temple of Solomon, mainly known as the Knights Templar, was a Military order (religious society), military order of the Catholic Church, Catholic faith, and one of the most important military ord ...
, and the Venetians to bring the remaining Christian state under his control. Having bought Mary of Antioch's claims to the
Kingdom of Jerusalem The Kingdom of Jerusalem, also known as the Crusader Kingdom, was one of the Crusader states established in the Levant immediately after the First Crusade. It lasted for almost two hundred years, from the accession of Godfrey of Bouillon in 1 ...
, he attacked Hugh III, causing a
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
within the rump kingdom. In 1277, Roger of San Severino captured Acre for Charles. Although the crusaders' internecine war was debilitating, it offered the possibility of unified control of the crusade under Charles. However, this hope was dashed when Venice suggested a crusade be called not against the Mamluks but against
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, where
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had recently re-established the
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and driven out the Venetians. Pope Gregory would not have supported such an attack, but in 1281
Pope Martin IV Pope Martin IV (; born Simon de Brion; 1210/1220 – 28 March 1285), was the head of the Catholic Church and ruler of the Papal States from 22 February 1281 until his death in 1285. He was the last French pope to hold his court in Rome before ...
assented to it; the ensuing fiasco helped lead to the
Sicilian Vespers The Sicilian Vespers (; ) was a successful rebellion on the island of Sicily that broke out at Easter 1282 against the rule of the French-born king Charles I of Anjou. Since taking control of the Kingdom of Sicily in 1266, the Capetian House ...
on 31 March 1282, instigated by Michael VIII, and Charles was forced to return home. This was the last crusader expedition launched against the Byzantines in Europe or the Muslims in the Holy Land. The remaining nine years saw an increase in demands from the Mamluks, including tribute, as well as increased persecution of pilgrims, all in contravention of the truce. In 1289, Sultan Qalawun gathered a large army and invested the remnants of the county of Tripoli. He ultimately laid siege to the capital and took it after a bloody assault. The attack on Tripoli however was particularly devastating to the Mamluks as the Christian resistance reached fanatical proportions and Qalawun lost his eldest and most able son in the campaign. He waited another two years to regather his strength. In 1275, Abaqa sent a messenger to Edward with a letter. Abaqa requested that Edward mobilize for another Crusade, saying he could offer more help this time. Edward wrote back the same year, thanking Abaqa for his help in the Ninth Crusade while also noting his affection for Christianity. He said he did not know when there would be another Crusade, but was eager to get back to the Holy Land, and would inform Abaqa if the Pope declared another. The letter was almost certainly a formality, as Edward made no preparations for another Crusade. In 1276, another envoy was sent to Edward with the same message, with an additional message of apology for not effectively intervening in 1271.Preiss, p. 101 In 1291, a group of pilgrims from Acre came under attack and in retaliation killed nineteen Muslim merchants in a Syrian caravan. Qalawun demanded they pay an extraordinary amount in compensation. When no reply came, the Sultan used it as a pretext to besiege Acre and finish off the last independent Crusader state occupying the Holy Land. Qalawun died during the siege, leaving Khalil, the sole surviving member of his family, as Mamluk Sultan. With Acre seized, the Crusader States other than Cyprus ceased to exist. The center of power of the Crusaders was moved northwards to
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and eventually offshore to Cyprus. In 1299, a Mongol army led by Ghazan Khan led a series of successful raids against the Mamluks in an
area Area is the measure of a region's size on a surface. The area of a plane region or ''plane area'' refers to the area of a shape or planar lamina, while '' surface area'' refers to the area of an open surface or the boundary of a three-di ...
northeast of
Homs Homs ( ; ), known in pre-Islamic times as Emesa ( ; ), is a city in western Syria and the capital of the Homs Governorate. It is Metres above sea level, above sea level and is located north of Damascus. Located on the Orontes River, Homs is ...
to as far south as Gaza. He finally withdrew from Syria in 1300. The Mongols and
Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia The Armenian Kingdom of Cilicia, also known as Cilician Armenia, Lesser Armenia, Little Armenia or New Armenia, and formerly known as the Armenian Principality of Cilicia, was an Armenian state formed during the High Middle Ages by Armenian ...
led another campaign to recapture
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, but were soon defeated by the Mamluks at the Battle of Shaqhab in 1303. The last remaining foothold on the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
, Ruad Island, was lost by 1303. The period of the
Crusades The Crusades were a series of religious wars initiated, supported, and at times directed by the Papacy during the Middle Ages. The most prominent of these were the campaigns to the Holy Land aimed at reclaiming Jerusalem and its surrounding t ...
to the
Holy Land The term "Holy Land" is used to collectively denote areas of the Southern Levant that hold great significance in the Abrahamic religions, primarily because of their association with people and events featured in the Bible. It is traditionall ...
was over, 208 years after the beginning of the
First Crusade The First Crusade (1096–1099) was the first of a series of religious wars, or Crusades, initiated, supported and at times directed by the Latin Church in the Middle Ages. The objective was the recovery of the Holy Land from Muslim conquest ...
.


See also

* Alexandrian Crusade *
Egyptian Armed Forces The Egyptian Armed Forces () are the military forces of the Egypt, Arab Republic of Egypt. The Chief of Staff of the Armed Forces directs (a) Egyptian Army forces, (b) the Egyptian Navy, (c) Egyptian Air Force and (d) Egyptian Air Defense Forces. ...
* Egyptian Army * Henry V, Count of Luxembourg, joined Edward of England on his crusade * List of wars involving Egypt * Military of ancient Egypt


Notes


References

* * * *"Histoire des Croisades III", René Grousset *"Edward I", Michael Prestwich, University of California Press, 1988 *"The Crusades: A History of One of the Most Epic Military Campaigns of All Time", Jonathan Howard, 2011 *''God's War: A New History of the Crusades'', Christopher Tyerman *"Mongols and Mamluks", Reuven Amitai-Preiss, 2005 *


Further reading

*Simon Lloyd, "The Lord Edward's Crusade, 1270–2: Its Setting and Significance," in ''War and Government in the Middle Ages: Essays in Honour of J. O. Prestwich'', ed. John Gillingham and J. C. Holt (Cambridge: Boydell Press, 1984). {{Campaignbox Mongol invasions of Syria 13th-century crusades 1270s conflicts 1270s in Asia 13th century in the Mamluk Sultanate