Lolita Lebrón
   HOME

TheInfoList



OR:

Lolita Lebrón (November 19, 1919 – August 1, 2010) was a Puerto Rican
nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
who was convicted of aggravated assault and other crimes after carrying out an armed attack on the
United States Capitol The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol or the Capitol Building, is the Seat of government, seat of the United States Congress, the United States Congress, legislative branch of the Federal government of the United States, federal g ...
in 1954, which resulted in the wounding of five members of the
United States Congress The United States Congress is the legislature, legislative branch of the federal government of the United States. It is a Bicameralism, bicameral legislature, including a Lower house, lower body, the United States House of Representatives, ...
. She was released from prison in 1979 after being granted clemency by
President President most commonly refers to: *President (corporate title) * President (education), a leader of a college or university *President (government title) President may also refer to: Arts and entertainment Film and television *'' Præsident ...
Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...
. Lebrón was born and raised in
Lares Lares ( , ; archaic , singular ) were Tutelary deity#Ancient Rome, guardian deities in ancient Roman religion. Their origin is uncertain; they may have been hero-ancestors, guardians of the hearth, fields, boundaries, or fruitfulness, or an ama ...
,
Puerto Rico ; abbreviated PR), officially the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, is a Government of Puerto Rico, self-governing Caribbean Geography of Puerto Rico, archipelago and island organized as an Territories of the United States, unincorporated territo ...
, where she joined the Puerto Rican
Liberal Party The Liberal Party is any of many political parties around the world. The meaning of ''liberal'' varies around the world, ranging from liberal conservatism on the right to social liberalism on the left. For example, while the political systems ...
. In her youth she met Francisco Matos Paoli, a Puerto Rican
poet A poet is a person who studies and creates poetry. Poets may describe themselves as such or be described as such by others. A poet may simply be the creator (thought, thinker, songwriter, writer, or author) who creates (composes) poems (oral t ...
, with whom she had a relationship. In 1941, Lebrón migrated to
New York City New York, often called New York City (NYC), is the most populous city in the United States, located at the southern tip of New York State on one of the world's largest natural harbors. The city comprises five boroughs, each coextensive w ...
, where she joined the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, gaining influence within the party's leadership. In the early 1950s, the Nationalist Party began a series of revolutionary actions, including the 1950
Jayuya Uprising The Jayuya Uprising, also known as Jayuya Revolt or Cry of Jayuya (), was a Nationalist insurrection that took place on October 30, 1950, in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The insurrection, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the multiple insur ...
against American presence on the island. They conducted these attacks to protest the false and misleading claims by the
United States government The Federal Government of the United States of America (U.S. federal government or U.S. government) is the Federation#Federal governments, national government of the United States. The U.S. federal government is composed of three distinct ...
and
Luis Muñoz Marín José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898April 30, 1980) was a Puerto Rican journalist, politician, statesman and was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico, regarded as the "Architect of the Puerto Rico Commonwealth." In 1948 he ...
that Puerto Rico would no longer be dominated by the United States. As part of this initiative,
Pedro Albizu Campos Pedro Albizu Campos (June 29, 1893Luis Fortuño Janeiro. ''Album Histórico de Ponce (1692–1963).'' p. 290. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Imprenta Fortuño. 1963. – April 21, 1965) was a Puerto Rican attorney and politician, and a leading figure in ...
ordered Lebrón to organize attacks in the United States, focusing on locations that were "the most strategic to the enemy." Lebrón led a group of nationalists that attacked the
United States House of Representatives The United States House of Representatives is a chamber of the Bicameralism, bicameral United States Congress; it is the lower house, with the U.S. Senate being the upper house. Together, the House and Senate have the authority under Artic ...
in 1954. She was convicted, found guilty and incarcerated as a result. Lebrón remained imprisoned for 25 years, until 1979 when Jimmy Carter issued commutations to the group involved in the attack. After their release in 1979, the group returned to Puerto Rico, where supporters of Puerto Rican independence received them warmly. During the following years, Lebrón continued her involvement in pro-independence activities, including the protesting the existence of a United States Navy base at Vieques. Her life would be subsequently detailed in books and a documentary. On August 1, 2010, Lebrón died from complications of a cardiorespiratory
infection An infection is the invasion of tissue (biology), tissues by pathogens, their multiplication, and the reaction of host (biology), host tissues to the infectious agent and the toxins they produce. An infectious disease, also known as a transmis ...
.


Early life

Lebrón (birth name: Dolores Lebrón Sotomayor ) was one of five siblings born in Lares, Puerto Rico to Gonzalo Lebrón Bernal and Rafaela Soto Luciano; the other four children were Aurea, Augusto, Gonzalo Jr. and Julio. Lebrón was raised in ''Hacienda Pezuelas'' in Pezuela, a
barrio ''Barrio'' () is a Spanish language, Spanish word that means "Quarter (urban subdivision), quarter" or "neighborhood". In the modern Spanish language, it is generally defined as each area of a city delimited by functional (e.g. residential, comm ...
in Lares.Ribes Tovar et al., p.17 Gonzalo Lebrón worked as the hacienda's foreman earning a salary of $30 a month. The owner allowed to live in a "small house" and also permitted the family to plant produce.Ribes Tovar et al., p.19 In Pezuela, Lebrón began her education in a small community school.Ribes Tovar et al., p.20 Early in her life, Lebrón contracted
pneumonia Pneumonia is an Inflammation, inflammatory condition of the lung primarily affecting the small air sacs known as Pulmonary alveolus, alveoli. Symptoms typically include some combination of Cough#Classification, productive or dry cough, ches ...
when she accidentally fell into a gutter that was full of water. As a consequence of this illness, she grew with a frail body and was unable to keep up with the constant activities of her brothers without feeling fatigue.Ribes Tovar et al., p.21 She developed an introverted and contemplative personality, often spending time admiring nature around the hacienda. From Pezuela the family moved to Mirasol, also in Lares, where Gonzalo Lebrón administered a hacienda owned by Emilio Vilellas. There Lolita received a better education and attended a local public school.Ribes Tovar et al., p.23 When Lebrón completed the sixth grade she attended the ''Segunda Unidad Rural'', a middle school located in Bartolo, an adjacent barrio.Ribes Tovar et al., p.25 She concluded her formal public school education in the eighth grade.Ribes Tovar et al., p.33 Lebrón had uncommonly good looks and when she was a teenager won first place in the annual "Queen of the Flowers of May" beauty contest held in Lares. Although her father was an
atheist Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the existence of deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the position that there no ...
, Lebrón was baptized in the Catholic faith when she was fourteen years as were her other siblings.Ribes Tovar et al., p.37 During the baptism celebration she met Francisco Matos Paoli, who became her first boyfriend.Ribes Tovar et al., p.38 Paoli and Lebrón wrote letters to each other in which they exchanged the poetry which they wrote.Ribes Tovar et al., p.42 According to Jossianna Arroyo, Lolita wrote "more mystical poetry, centered on what she called 'visions' filled with religious symbolism." Paoli's family opposed their relationship because they considered Lebrón a '' jíbara'' (peasant). Her father also opposed this relationship and ordered her to stop writing Paoli. However, they both continued to write each other until Paoli moved out of the city.Ribes Tovar et al., p.43–44 Lebrón eventually moved to San Juan, where she studied sewing and continued her correspondence with Paoli.Ribes Tovar et al., p.46 She felt duty bound to return to Lares because her father was severely affected by
tuberculosis Tuberculosis (TB), also known colloquially as the "white death", or historically as consumption, is a contagious disease usually caused by ''Mycobacterium tuberculosis'' (MTB) bacteria. Tuberculosis generally affects the lungs, but it can al ...
.Ribes Tovar et al., p.66 The family was forced to abandon the house in the hacienda, but Ramón Santiago later provided them with a new house.Ribes Tovar et al., p.67 Lebrón took upon herself the responsibility of taking care of her father. She would travel to a nearby town to buy medicines for her father, which she gave him every seventy minutes.Ribes Tovar et al., p.68 For seven days she didn't sleep or eat while taking care of him. Following his death, Lebrón began supporting herself by weaving clothes.Ribes Tovar et al., p.73


Political activism

Although Lebrón was a member of the
Liberal Party The Liberal Party is any of many political parties around the world. The meaning of ''liberal'' varies around the world, ranging from liberal conservatism on the right to social liberalism on the left. For example, while the political systems ...
from a young age, she didn't display any interest in politics. However, her posture changed after March 21, 1937, when a group of militants from the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party were killed during a peaceful protest which became known as the
Ponce massacre The Ponce massacre was an event that took place on Palm Sunday, March 21, 1937, in Ponce, Puerto Rico, when a peaceful civilian Marching, march turned into a police shooting in which 17 civilians and two policemen were killed, and more than 200 ...
.Ribes Tovar et al., p.75 Lebrón who was eighteen years old at the time, developed a nationalistic ideology following this event.Ribes Tovar et al., p.79 During this timeframe, Lebrón had a relationship with a local engineer, following the advice of her family. When she was twenty-one years old she gave birth to her first daughter Gladys, who was left in Rafaela Luciano's custody after Lebrón was separated from her husband and moved to New York City.Ribes Tovar et al., p.86 After she arrived in New York City, she started to experience problems finding employment, mostly because she did not fully understand English.Ribes Tovar et al., p.93 Lebrón worked as a seamstress in several factories. She was fired from some of her jobs because she was considered a "rebel by her bosses" after she protested against the discrimination which she witnessed against Puerto Rican workers. This influenced her nationalistic views even further and she eventually established contact with members of the Puerto Rican Liberation Movement. She enrolled at George Washington College, where she studied for two years during her free time from work. She married again when she was twenty-two years old and gave birth to her second child, whom she would send to Puerto Rico to live with her mother, a year later.Ribes Tovar et al., p.94 Lebrón decided to divorce her husband because she felt that he was oppressing her.Ribes Tovar et al., p.95 In 1943, there was a massive migration of Puerto Ricans from Puerto Rico to New York, composed mostly of seeking employment. Lebrón grew increasingly frustrated when she observed how they were forced to live in poverty, under social decadence, and prejudice, and she increased her work within nationalist circles.Ribes Tovar et al., p.98–100 In 1946, she formally became a member of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, following the advice of a friend. During this time she developed an admiration for the Party's president
Pedro Albizu Campos Pedro Albizu Campos (June 29, 1893Luis Fortuño Janeiro. ''Album Histórico de Ponce (1692–1963).'' p. 290. Ponce, Puerto Rico: Imprenta Fortuño. 1963. – April 21, 1965) was a Puerto Rican attorney and politician, and a leading figure in ...
, studying and memorizing his biography and ideals.Ribes Tovar et al., p.101 After joining the party, Lebrón inadvertently included some of her own initiatives within the organization's ideals, these were influenced by
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
and
feminist Feminism is a range of socio-political movements and ideology, ideologies that aim to define and establish the political, economic, personal, and social gender equality, equality of the sexes. Feminism holds the position that modern soci ...
ideals.Ribes Tovar et al., p.111 Seeking more involvement in society and politics for women, new economic systems and social reforms that would protect women and children. Her constant involvement in the party's affairs earned her several high-ranking positions, among them those of secretary, vice-president, and executive delegate of its delegation in New York.Ribes Tovar et al., p.115 On May 21, 1948, a bill was introduced before the Puerto Rican Senate which would restrain the rights of the independence and nationalist movements in the
archipelago An archipelago ( ), sometimes called an island group or island chain, is a chain, cluster, or collection of islands. An archipelago may be in an ocean, a sea, or a smaller body of water. Example archipelagos include the Aegean Islands (the o ...
. The Senate, controlled by the ''Partido Popular Democrático'' ( PPD) and presided by
Luis Muñoz Marín José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898April 30, 1980) was a Puerto Rican journalist, politician, statesman and was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico, regarded as the "Architect of the Puerto Rico Commonwealth." In 1948 he ...
, approved the bill that day. This bill, which resembled the anti-communist
Smith Act The Alien Registration Act, popularly known as the Smith Act, 76th United States Congress, 3rd session, ch. 439, , is a United States federal statute that was enacted on June 28, 1940. It set criminal penalties for advocating the overthrow of ...
passed in the United States in 1940, became known as the ''Ley de la Mordaza'' ( Gag Law) when the U.S.-appointed governor of Puerto Rico, Jesús T. Piñero, signed it into law on June 10, 1948. Under this new law it would be a crime to print, publish, sell, or exhibit any material intended to paralyze or destroy the insular government; or to organize any society, group or assembly of people with a similar destructive intent. It made it illegal to sing a patriotic song, and reinforced the 1898 law that had made it illegal to display the
Flag of Puerto Rico The flag of Puerto Rico (), officially the Flag of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (), represents Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans, its people. It consists of five equal horizontal stripes, alternating from red to white, with a blue equilateral t ...
, with anyone found guilty of disobeying the law in any way being subject to a sentence of up to ten years imprisonment, a fine of up to US$10,000 (), or both. According to Dr.
Leopoldo Figueroa Leopoldo Figueroa (September 21, 1887 – October 15, 1969), also known as "The deacon of the Puerto Rican Legislature", was a Puerto Rican politician, journalist, medical doctor and lawyer. Figueroa, who began his political career as an advocate ...
, the only non-PPD member of the Puerto Rico House of Representatives, the law was repressive and was in violation of the First Amendment of the
US Constitution The Constitution of the United States is the supreme law of the United States of America. It superseded the Articles of Confederation, the nation's first constitution, on March 4, 1789. Originally including seven articles, the Constitut ...
which guarantees
Freedom of Speech Freedom of speech is a principle that supports the freedom of an individual or a community to articulate their opinions and ideas without fear of retaliation, censorship, or legal sanction. The rights, right to freedom of expression has been r ...
. He pointed out that the law as such was a violation of the civil rights of the people of Puerto Rico. On November 1, 1950, following a series of uprisings in Puerto Rico which included the
Jayuya Uprising The Jayuya Uprising, also known as Jayuya Revolt or Cry of Jayuya (), was a Nationalist insurrection that took place on October 30, 1950, in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The insurrection, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the multiple insur ...
and the Utuado Uprising which culminated in a massacre,
Oscar Collazo Oscar Collazo (January 20, 1914 – February 21, 1994) was a Puerto Rican militant of the Nationalist Party. He and Griselio Torresola were responsible for the attempted assassination of U.S. President Harry S. Truman in Washington, D.C. ...
and Griselio Torresola invaded
Harry S. Truman Harry S. Truman (May 8, 1884December 26, 1972) was the 33rd president of the United States, serving from 1945 to 1953. As the 34th vice president in 1945, he assumed the presidency upon the death of Franklin D. Roosevelt that year. Subsequen ...
's residence, carrying a letter written by Albizu Campos and addressed to Truman. A shootout erupted between the duo and the guard stationed there, killing Torresola. Collazo was badly injured but survived and was sentenced to death by an American jury. The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party claimed that their goal was to "draw attention to the fact of Puerto Rico's continued colonial status", while the American government and media treated it as an assassination attempt. Following the sentence, Lebrón quickly joined the "Committee for Oscar Collazo's defense", participating in numerous public manifestations which eventually led to a presidential commutation.Ribes Tovar et al., p.122 On July 25, 1952, the official name of Puerto Rico was changed to ''Estado Libre Associado'' (commonwealth of the United States) as a constitution was promulgated by
Luis Muñoz Marín José Luis Alberto Muñoz Marín (February 18, 1898April 30, 1980) was a Puerto Rican journalist, politician, statesman and was the first elected governor of Puerto Rico, regarded as the "Architect of the Puerto Rico Commonwealth." In 1948 he ...
, the islands' first elected governor. In 1954, Lebrón received a letter from Albizu Campos, in which he declared his intention to order attacks on "three locations, the most strategic to the enemy".Ribes Tovar et al., p.132


Assault on the House of Representatives


Attack preparations

Albizu Campos had been corresponding with 34-year-old Lebrón from prison and chose a group of nationalists who included
Rafael Cancel Miranda Rafael Cancel Miranda (July 18, 1930 – March 2, 2020) was a poet, political activist, member of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and an advocate of Puerto Rican independence. On March 1, 1954, Cancel Miranda and three other Nationalists (Lo ...
, Irvin Flores and
Andres Figueroa Cordero Andrés Figueroa Cordero (November 29, 1924 – March 7, 1979) was a political activist, member of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party and an advocate of Puerto Rican independence. On March 1, 1954, with fellow Nationalists Lolita Lebrón, Ir ...
to attack locations in Washington, D.C. Upon receiving the order she communicated it to the leadership of the Nationalist party in New York and, although two members unexpectedly disagreed, the plan continued. Lebrón decided to lead the group, even though Albizu Campos did not order her to directly take part in the assault. She studied the plan, determining the possible weaknesses, concluding that a single attack on the House of Representatives would be more effective. The date for the attack on the House of Representatives was to be March 1, 1954. This date was chosen because it coincided with the inauguration of the ''Conferencia Interamericana'' (Interamerican Conference) in
Caracas Caracas ( , ), officially Santiago de León de Caracas (CCS), is the capital and largest city of Venezuela, and the center of the Metropolitan Region of Caracas (or Greater Caracas). Caracas is located along the Guaire River in the northern p ...
. Lebrón intended to call attention to Puerto Rico's independence cause, particularly among the Latin American countries participating in the conference.


The attack

On the morning of March 1, Lebrón travelled to
Grand Central Terminal Grand Central Terminal (GCT; also referred to as Grand Central Station or simply as Grand Central) is a commuter rail terminal station, terminal located at 42nd Street (Manhattan), 42nd Street and Park Avenue in Midtown Manhattan, New York Ci ...
, where she rendezvoused with the rest of the group. Once they arrived at the
United States Capitol The United States Capitol, often called the Capitol or the Capitol Building, is the Seat of government, seat of the United States Congress, the United States Congress, legislative branch of the Federal government of the United States, federal g ...
, Rafael Cancel Miranda suggested that the attack should be postponed because it was late and rainy.Ribes Tovar et al., p.136 Lebrón responded, "I am alone" and continued towards the building's interior. The group followed, considering the attack a
coup d'état A coup d'état (; ; ), or simply a coup , is typically an illegal and overt attempt by a military organization or other government elites to unseat an incumbent leadership. A self-coup is said to take place when a leader, having come to powe ...
, the most important revolutionary act in the history of the Puerto Rican independence movement, the fourth uprising after the ''
Grito de Lares ''Grito de Lares'' (''Cry of Lares''), also referred to as the Lares revolt, the Lares rebellion, the Lares uprising, or the Lares revolution, was the first of two short-lived revolts against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico, staged by the Revolu ...
'', the ''
Intentona de Yauco The ''Intentona de Yauco'' (''Attempted Coup of Yauco'') of March 24–26, 1897 was the second and final short-lived revolt against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico. It was staged by the pro-independence Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico in t ...
'' and the Jayuya Uprising. The other members of the group seemed serene and optimistic while rushing towards the legislative chamber. When Lebrón's group reached the visitor's gallery above the chamber in the House, they sat while the representatives discussed Mexico's economy. Shortly thereafter, Lebrón gave the order to the other members, the group quickly recited the
Lord's Prayer The Lord's Prayer, also known by its incipit Our Father (, ), is a central Christian prayer attributed to Jesus. It contains petitions to God focused on God’s holiness, will, and kingdom, as well as human needs, with variations across manusc ...
; then Lebrón stood up and shouted "''¡Viva Puerto Rico Libre!''" ("Long live a Free Puerto Rico!") and unfurled the
flag of Puerto Rico The flag of Puerto Rico (), officially the Flag of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico (), represents Puerto Rico and Puerto Ricans, its people. It consists of five equal horizontal stripes, alternating from red to white, with a blue equilateral t ...
. The group opened fire with
semi-automatic pistol A semi-automatic pistol (also called a self-loading pistol, autopistol, or autoloading pistol) is a repeating firearm, repeating handgun that automatically ejects and loads cartridge (firearms), cartridges in its chamber (firearms), chamber afte ...
s. Lebrón claimed that she fired her shots at the ceiling, while Figueroa's pistol jammed. Some 30 shots were fired (mostly by Cancel, according to his account), wounding five lawmakers; one representative,
Alvin Morell Bentley Alvin Morell Bentley III (August 30, 1918 – April 10, 1969) was an American politician from the U.S. state of Michigan. As a four-term a U.S. representative from 1953 to 1961, he made national headlines as one of the wounded of the 1954 United ...
from Michigan, was seriously wounded in the chest. Upon being arrested, Lebrón yelled, "I did not come to kill anyone, I came to die for Puerto Rico!".


Trial and imprisonment

Lebrón and her group were charged with attempted murder and other crimes. She was imprisoned in the Federal Correctional Institution for Women in
Alderson, West Virginia Alderson is a town in Greenbrier County, Greenbrier and Monroe County, West Virginia, Monroe counties in the U.S. state of West Virginia, on both sides of the Greenbrier River. The population was 975 at the 2020 census. History Alderson is a c ...
. The trial began on June 4, 1954, with judge Alexander Holtzoff presiding over the case, under strict security measures. A jury composed of seven men and five women was assembled, their identities kept secret from the media. The prosecution was led by Leo A. Rover, as part of this process 33 witnesses testified.Ribes Tovar et al., p.178
Ruth Mary Reynolds Ruth Mary Reynolds (February 29, 1916 – December 2, 1989) was an American educator, political and civil rights activist who embraced the ideals of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. She was incarcerated in ''La Princesa'' Prison for se ...
, the "American/Puerto Rican Nationalist" and the organization which she founded "American League for Puerto Rico's Independence" came to the defense of Lebrón and the three other Nationalists.Guide to the Ruth M. Reynolds Papers 1915–1989
Lebrón and the other members of the group were the only defense witnesses, as part of her testimony she reaffirmed that they "came to die for the liberty of her homeland".Ribes Tovar et al., p.186 As part of her 20-minute speech to the jury at her trial, Lebrón stated that she was "being crucified for the freedom of my country." During the early part of their trial she remained calm, complaining through her lawyers alleged disrespect for the flag while it was being produced as evidence. She loudly protested when the defense suggested that the group might have suffered from mental instability while committing the deed.Ribes Tovar et al., p.188 On June 16, 1954, the jury found all four defendants guilty. On the morning of July 8, 1954, Lebrón learned of her son's death minutes before the sentence was to be announced. She was quiet at the beginning of the hearing, but at one point, unable to contain herself, she became hysterical. Holtzoff chose to sentence them to the longest terms of imprisonment possible.Ribes Tovar et al., p.193–194 In Lebrón's case this was between sixteen and fifty years, depending on her behavior. Back at the prison, she went into shock upon receiving official notice of her son's death and did not speak for three days. On July 13, 1954, the four nationalists were taken to New York, where they pleaded not guilty to the charges of "trying to overthrow the government of the United States".Ribes Tovar et al., p.197 One of the witnesses for the prosecution was Gonzalo Lebrón Jr., who testified against his sister. On October 26, 1954, judge Lawrence E. Walsh found all the defendants guilty of conspiracy and sentenced them to six additional years in prison.Ribes Tovar et al., p.209 Lebrón was sentenced to a fifty-year prison term. Lebrón stated the first two years in prison were the most difficult, having to deal with the deaths of her son and mother.Ribes Tovar et al., p.213 Communication with her siblings was non-existent. Lebrón refused to accept letters from her sister because only letters written in English were permitted in the prison. Communication with the outside world was not allowed then. Later it was granted after several inmates went on a
hunger strike A hunger strike is a method of non-violent resistance where participants fasting, fast as an act of political protest, usually with the objective of achieving a specific goal, such as a policy change. Hunger strikers that do not take fluids are ...
that lasted three and a half days.Ribes Tovar et al., p.218 Due to her participation, Lebrón was not allowed to perform work outside of her cell for some time, although she was eventually allowed to work at the
infirmary Infirmary may refer to: *Historically, a hospital, especially a small hospital *A first aid room in a school, prison, or other institution *A dispensary (an office that dispenses medications) *A clinic A clinic (or outpatient clinic or ambul ...
. While in prison, a group of judges offered her parole in exchange for a public apology, which she indignantly rejected. After completing the first 15 years of the sentence, Lebrón's social worker told her that she could ask for
parole Parole, also known as provisional release, supervised release, or being on paper, is a form of early release of a prisoner, prison inmate where the prisoner agrees to abide by behavioral conditions, including checking-in with their designated ...
, but she did not display interest in the proposal, never signing the required documentation.Ribes Tovar et al., p.221 Due to this lack of interest, she was mandated to attend a meeting before a penitentiary committee, where she presented a written deposition expressing her position about the parole proposal, as well as other subjects including terrorism, politics, and the United States' use of the atomic bomb.Ribes Tovar et al., p.222 Following this, the other inmates reacted with skepticism over her intentions to refuse the offer, which made her distance herself from them, and focus her attention in studying, as well as writing poetry. During this timeframe, Lebrón's interest in religion grew.Ribes Tovar et al., p.230–234 Lebrón's daughter Gladys died in 1977, while her mother was in prison.


Later years, death and legacy

In 1979 President
Jimmy Carter James Earl Carter Jr. (October 1, 1924December 29, 2024) was an American politician and humanitarian who served as the 39th president of the United States from 1977 to 1981. A member of the Democratic Party (United States), Democratic Party ...
commuted the sentences of Lolita Lebrón, Irvin Flores, and Rafael Cancel Miranda after they had served 25 years in prison. Andrés Figueroa Cordero was released from prison earlier because of a terminal illness.
Governor of Puerto Rico The governor of Puerto Rico () is the head of government of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, an unincorporated territory of the United States. Elected to a 4 year-term through popular vote by the residents of the archipelago and island, ...
Carlos Romero Barceló Carlos Antonio Romero Barceló (September 4, 1932 – May 2, 2021) was a Puerto Rican politician who served as the governor of Puerto Rico from 1977 to 1985. He was the second governor to be elected from the New Progressive Party (PNP). He als ...
publicly opposed the commutations granted by Carter, stating that it would encourage terrorism and undermine public safety. Lebrón received a heroine's welcome by her supporters upon her return to her motherland. Lebrón married Sergio Irizarry Rivera and continued to participate in pro-independence activities. The couple had met while she was in prison, when the Nationalist Party ordered him to monitor her health. Their marriage took place eight years after they had met. They moved into a small house in Loiza. The house possessed few distinctive traits, mostly composed of religious iconography and a large flag of Puerto Rico in the living room. In 1979, Lolita Lebrón, Irvin Flores, Rafael Cancel Miranda and Oscar Collazo were recognized as the embodiment of the directive of their teacher Albizu Campos to exercise valor and sacrifice before representatives of fifty-one countries at the International Conference in Support of Independence for Puerto Rico, held in Mexico City. That same year Lebrón and her group were awarded the Order of Playa Girón in Cuba. The Order of Playa Girón is a national order conferred by the
Council of State A council of state is a governmental body in a country, or a subdivision of a country, with a function that varies by jurisdiction. It may be the formal name for the cabinet or it may refer to a non-executive advisory body associated with a head ...
of
Cuba Cuba, officially the Republic of Cuba, is an island country, comprising the island of Cuba (largest island), Isla de la Juventud, and List of islands of Cuba, 4,195 islands, islets and cays surrounding the main island. It is located where the ...
on Cubans or foreigners. On May 22, 2000, she erroneously filed charges of verbal assault against Nívea Hernández, the mother of then-Puerto Rico Senator
Kenneth McClintock Kenneth Davison McClintock-Hernández (born January 19, 1957) is a politician who served as the twenty-second Secretary of State of Puerto Rico, one of the four longest serving in that post. McClintock served as co-chair of Hillary Clinton’s N ...
who subsequently served as Minority Leader, and later President, of the
Senate of Puerto Rico The Senate of Puerto Rico () is the upper house of the Legislative Assembly of Puerto Rico, the territorial legislature of Puerto Rico. The Senate, together with the House of Representatives of Puerto Rico, control the legislative branch of ...
and now serves as Secretary of State, after a discussion ensued between her and an unidentified woman at a pharmacy in San Juan. The case was reported after an employee of the establishment identified the instigator as Hernández, who was recuperating from surgery at the moment and died two months later. She continued to be active in the independence cause and participated in the
protests A protest (also called a demonstration, remonstration, or remonstrance) is a public act of objection, disapproval or dissent against political advantage. Protests can be thought of as acts of cooperation in which numerous people cooperate ...
against the
United States Navy The United States Navy (USN) is the naval warfare, maritime military branch, service branch of the United States Department of Defense. It is the world's most powerful navy with the largest Displacement (ship), displacement, at 4.5 millio ...
's presence in
Vieques Vieques (; ), officially Isla de Vieques, is an island, town and municipality of Puerto Rico, and together with Culebra, it is geographically part of the Spanish Virgin Islands. Vieques lies about east of the mainland of Puerto Rico, measuri ...
. Lebrón appeared as a witness at the "International Tribunal on Violations of Human Rights in Puerto Rico and Vieques" held on November 17–21, 2000, on the island of Vieques. According to the local newspaper ''
El Vocero ''El Vocero de Puerto Rico'' is a Puerto Rican free newspaper that is published in San Juan. Published since 1974, ''El Vocero'' was at first the third of the four largest Puerto Rico newspapers, trailing '' El Mundo'' and '' El Nuevo Día'' and ...
'', her audience applauded when Lebrón said at the end of her deposition "I had the honor of leading the act against the U.S. Congress on March 1, 1954, when we demanded freedom for Puerto Rico and we told the world that we are an invaded nation, occupied and abused by the United States of America. I feel very proud of having performed that day, of having answered the call of the motherland". On June 26, 2001, Lebrón was among a group of protesters that were arrested for trespassing in the restricted area in Vieques. On July 19, 2001, she was sentenced to 60 days of prison on the charge that she was trespassing on Navy property. Lebrón had already served 23 days in jail since her June arrest, leaving her to serve 37 additional days. Less than two years after Lebron's Vieques protest, on May 1, 2003, the U.S. Navy left Vieques and turned over its facilities to the
government of Puerto Rico The government of the Commonwealth of Puerto Rico, organized under the Constitution of Puerto Rico since 1952, is a republican democracy modeled after the Federal Government of the United States. Under a system of separation of powers, the ...
. Following this, she continued her participation in other pro independence activities. On September 5, 2005, the couple was transported to a hospital, after a fire affected part of their house, causing $14,000 in material losses. Lebrón was among the political leaders that opposed the Democratic Party's primary that took place on June 1, 2008. The group anticipated a low
voter turnout In political science, voter turnout is the participation rate (often defined as those who cast a ballot) of a given election. This is typically either the percentage of Voter registration, registered voters, Suffrage, eligible voters, or all Voti ...
in the event, while declaring that Puerto Rico "deserves sovereignty". On June 10, 2008, Lebrón suffered a fracture in her hip and a wrist after accidentally falling in her house. She underwent corrective surgery at a San Juan hospital. A film inspired by Lebrón's life was being considered in 2009, with actress
Eva Longoria Eva Jacqueline Longoria Bastón ( Longoria; born March 15, 1975) is an American actress, producer, director, and businesswoman. After several guest roles on television, she became recognized for her portrayal of Isabella Braña on the CBS day ...
. but was never produced. Between 2008 and 2010, Lebrón was hospitalized multiple times, the first being due to a fall that fractured her hip and an arm, requiring surgery. On September 18, 2009, she suffered a notable relapse due to a cardio respiratory infection. Lebrón recovered in a satisfactory manner and issued a press release in appreciation for the public's support. Complications from this episode of bronchitis, however, persisted throughout 2010, leading to her death on August 1, 2010. Multiple public figures, who support independence or free association for Puerto Rico, immediately lamented Lebrón's death, praising her activism. Her life was eulogized in some European papers.


Legacy

Among the homages received by Lebrón are paintings, books and a documentary. Mexican artist Octavio Ocampo created a poster of Lebrón, which was exhibited at the Galería de la Raza in
San Francisco, California San Francisco, officially the City and County of San Francisco, is a commercial, Financial District, San Francisco, financial, and Culture of San Francisco, cultural center of Northern California. With a population of 827,526 residents as of ...
. In Chicago's Humboldt Park, there is a
mural A mural is any piece of Graphic arts, graphic artwork that is painted or applied directly to a wall, ceiling or other permanent substrate. Mural techniques include fresco, mosaic, graffiti and marouflage. Word mural in art The word ''mural'' ...
depicting Lebrón among other well known Puerto Ricans. In addition to these works, Lebrón became a popular subject in
silkscreen Screen printing is a printing technique where a mesh is used to transfer ink (or dye) onto a substrate, except in areas made impermeable to the ink by a blocking stencil. A blade or squeegee is moved across the screen in a "flood stroke" ...
art. One such work that has garnered a lot of attention is Linda Lucero’s work ''Lolita Lebrón: ¡Viva Puerto Rico Libre!'' The artist was interested in learning about political prisoners being held in the United States, and Lebrón stood out to her as a potential subject for a poster regarding the formation of a community. Furthermore, as a resident of San Francisco’s
Mission District The Mission District ( Spanish: ''Distrito de la Misión''), commonly known as the Mission ( Spanish: ''La Misión''), is a neighborhood in San Francisco, California. One of the oldest neighborhoods in San Francisco, the Mission District's name ...
, a region whose Latino population featured only a small percent of Puerto Ricans, Lucero’s decision to depict Lebrón was unexpected, and perhaps reflected the “ internal colony” thesis. One of the most often discussed elements of the work is that Lebrón, typically regarded as a white woman by Puerto Ricans, is rendered in burnt sienna to highlight her brown skin. The poster is perceived as portraying Lebrón as a contemplative, suffering figure, who some scholars regard as embodying a "racialized colonial subject who suffers at the hands of an imperial power". This artistic portrayal of Lebrón contrasts the common interpretation of the US press’ portrayal of her as a
femme fatale A ( , ; ), sometimes called a maneater, Mata Hari, or vamp, is a stock character of a mysterious, beautiful, and Seduction, seductive woman whose charms ensnare her lovers, often leading them into compromising, deadly traps. She is an archetype ...
. This work became widely recognized, and is today housed in the
Smithsonian American Art Museum The Smithsonian American Art Museum (SAAM; formerly the National Museum of American Art) is a museum in Washington, D.C., part of the Smithsonian Institution. Together with its branch museum, the Renwick Gallery, SAAM holds one of the world's lar ...
. Another silkscreen representation of Lebrón, also in the Smithsonian American Art Museum, is ''Lolita Lebrón, Puerto Rican Freedom Fighter''by Marcos Dimas. In contrast to Lucero’s suffering Lebrón, or the media’s description of her as a terrorist, with headlines such as “When terror wore lipstick,” Dimas represents a portrayal of Lolita Lebrón that scholars regard as “heroic,” showing her in three-quarter profile with her eyes defiantly raised and staring ahead in determination, repeated four times in the same color palette on the poster, and declaring her as a “Puerto Rican Freedom Fighter”. Beyond art, writer, director and film producer Judith Escalona is planning to make a film about Lebrón's life. Federico Ribes Tovar published a book titled ''Lolita la Prisionera''. There is a plaque, located at the monument to the
Jayuya Uprising The Jayuya Uprising, also known as Jayuya Revolt or Cry of Jayuya (), was a Nationalist insurrection that took place on October 30, 1950, in the town of Jayuya, Puerto Rico. The insurrection, led by Blanca Canales, was one of the multiple insur ...
participants in Mayagüez, Puerto Rico, honoring the women of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. Lebron's name is on the first line of the third plate. Among the books that include the story of Lebrón are ''The Ladies' Gallery: A Memoir of Family Secrets'' by Irene Vilar (Lebrón's granddaughter), translated by Gregory Rabassa (formerly published as ''A Message from God in the Atomic Age''). The author criticizes her grandmother as ''a distant, gun-toting, larger-than-life figure who cast a veil of pain and secrecy over her family so vast that Ms. Vilar is still untangling herself from it.'' It also documents the death of Lebrón's only daughter (Vilar's mother) as suicide. Irene Vilar began to write the novel in a psychiatric hospital in Syracuse, New York. Lebrón's granddaughter, Vilar, may have had a slight change of heart after
Hurricane Maria Hurricane Maria was an extremely powerful and devastating tropical cyclone that affected the northeastern Caribbean in September 2017, particularly in the U.S. territory of Puerto Rico, which accounted for 2,975 of the 3,059 deaths. It is the ...
devastated Puerto Rico. She recalled her grandmother's wisdom in that she often said that if Puerto Ricans could feed themselves they could have their country. Vilar appealed for donations of seeds (farmers had lost everything), and received "so many we didn't know what to do with them" so she started the "Resilience Fund" with Tara Rodriguez Besosa. She felt they had to work quickly to save farms and farmer's livelihoods.


Further reading

*
Full text of ''The Young Lords: A Reader'' (2010) edited by Darrel Enck-Wanzer, including "Lolita Lebron: Puerto Rican Liberation Fighter" (1970), by Carlos Aponte, Ministry of Education, East Coast Region
Young Lords The Young Lords, also known as the Young Lords Organization (YLO), were a left-wing political organization that originally developed from a Chicago street gang. With major branches in Chicago and New York City, they were known for their direct act ...
. *"War Against All Puerto Ricans: Revolution and Terror in America's Colony"; Author: Nelson Antonio Denis; Publisher: Nation Books (April 7, 2015); .


See also

*
List of Puerto Ricans This is a list of notable people from Puerto Rico which includes people who were born in Puerto Rico (Borinquen) and people who are of full or partial Puerto Rican people, Puerto Rican descent. Puerto Rican citizens are included, as the governm ...
*
History of women in Puerto Rico The recorded history of Puerto Rican women can trace its roots back to the era of the ''Taíno'', the indigenous people of the Caribbean, who inhabited the island that they called ''Borinquen'' before the arrival of Spaniards. During the Span ...
*
List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States #REDIRECT List of people pardoned or granted clemency by the president of the United States {{R from move ...
19th Century female leaders of the Puerto Rican Independence Movement * María de las Mercedes Barbudo *
Lola Rodríguez de Tió Lola Rodríguez de Tió (September 14, 1843 – November 10, 1924) was a Puerto Rican woman who established herself a reputation as a great poet throughout all of Latin America. A believer in women's rights, she was also committed to the abolit ...
* Mariana Bracetti Female members of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party *
Blanca Canales Blanca Canales (February 17, 1906 – July 25, 1996) was an educator and a Puerto Rican Nationalist. Canales joined the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party in 1931 and helped organize the Daughters of Freedom, the women's branch of the Puerto Rican ...
* Rosa Collazo *
Julia de Burgos Julia Constanza Burgos García (February 17, 1914 – July 6, 1953), known as Julia de Burgos, was a Puerto Ricans, Puerto Rican poet, journalist, Independence movement in Puerto Rico, Puerto Rican independence advocate, and teacher. As an advo ...
*
Ruth Mary Reynolds Ruth Mary Reynolds (February 29, 1916 – December 2, 1989) was an American educator, political and civil rights activist who embraced the ideals of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party. She was incarcerated in ''La Princesa'' Prison for se ...
* Isabel Rosado * Isabel Freire de Matos * Isolina Rondón * Olga Viscal Garriga Articles related to the Puerto Rican Independence Movement *
Puerto Rican Nationalist Party Revolts of the 1950s The Puerto Rican Nationalist Party insurgency was a series of coordinated insurrections for the secession of Puerto Rico led by the president of the Puerto Rican Nationalist Party, Don Pedro Albizu Campos, against the United States governmen ...
* Puerto Rican Nationalist Party *
Ponce massacre The Ponce massacre was an event that took place on Palm Sunday, March 21, 1937, in Ponce, Puerto Rico, when a peaceful civilian Marching, march turned into a police shooting in which 17 civilians and two policemen were killed, and more than 200 ...
* Río Piedras massacre *
Puerto Rican Independence Party The Puerto Rican Independence Party (, PIP) is a social-democratic political party in Puerto Rico that campaigns for the independence of Puerto Rico from the United States. Those who follow the PIP ideology are usually called ''independentist ...
*
Grito de Lares ''Grito de Lares'' (''Cry of Lares''), also referred to as the Lares revolt, the Lares rebellion, the Lares uprising, or the Lares revolution, was the first of two short-lived revolts against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico, staged by the Revolu ...
*
Intentona de Yauco The ''Intentona de Yauco'' (''Attempted Coup of Yauco'') of March 24–26, 1897 was the second and final short-lived revolt against Spanish rule in Puerto Rico. It was staged by the pro-independence Revolutionary Committee of Puerto Rico in t ...
*
Boricua Popular Army The ("Puerto Rican people#Boricua, Boricua Popular/People's Army"), also known as ("The Machete Wielders"), is a clandestine operation, clandestine militant and insurgent organization based in Puerto Rico, with cells in the broader US and othe ...
*
Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional (Puerto Rico) FALN is an acronym for ''Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional'' (English: "Armed Forces of National Liberation"). It can refer to: *'' Fuerzas Armadas de Liberación Nacional Puertorriqueña'' (Puerto Rico) *Armed Forces of National Liberation ...


Notes


References


External links

* * {{DEFAULTSORT:Lebron, Lolita 1919 births 2010 deaths Burials at Santa María Magdalena de Pazzis Cemetery People from Lares, Puerto Rico 1954 crimes in the United States Puerto Rican feminists Puerto Rican people convicted of seditious conspiracy Puerto Rican Nationalist Party politicians American people convicted of attempted murder Puerto Rican women in politics Puerto Rican Roman Catholics Imprisoned Puerto Rican independence activists Puerto Rican revolutionaries Puerto Rican socialists Puerto Rican rebels Female revolutionaries Infectious disease deaths in Puerto Rico Prisoners and detainees of the District of Columbia Prisoners and detainees of the United States federal government Commutations granted by Jimmy Carter