The language spoken by the Liburnians in classical times is basically unattested and unclassified. It is reckoned as an

Indo-European language The Indo-European languages are a language family native to the northern Indian subcontinent, most of Europe, and the Iranian plateau with additional native branches found in regions such as Sri Lanka, the Maldives, parts of Central Asia ( ...

with a significant proportion of the Pre-Indo-European elements from the wider area of the ancient Mediterranean. Due to the paucity of evidence, the very existence of a distinct 'Liburnian language' must be considered hypothetical at this point.

Classification

No writings in Liburnian are known. The only presumed Liburnian linguistic remains are Liburnian toponyms and some family and personal names in Liburnia presumed to be native to the area, in Latinized form from the 1st century AD. Smaller differences found in the archaeological material of narrower regions in Liburnia are in a certain measure reflected also in these scarce linguistic remains. This has caused much speculation about the language but no certainty. Features shared by Liburnian and other languages have been noted in Liburnian language remains, names and toponyms, dating from between the

Iron Age The Iron Age () is the final epoch of the three historical Metal Ages, after the Chalcolithic and Bronze Age. It has also been considered as the final age of the three-age division starting with prehistory (before recorded history) and progre ...

and the beginning of the

Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the ...

. These are insufficient for a precise linguistic classification, other than a general indication that they have an Indo-European basis, but also may incorporate significant elements from Pre-Indo-European languages. This also appears to be the case in their social relations, and such phenomena are likely related to their separate cultural development, physical isolation and mixed ethnic origins. Following studies of the onomastics of the Roman province of Dalmatia, Géza Alföldy has suggested that the Liburni and Histri belonged to the Venetic language area. In particular, some Liburnian anthroponyms show strong Venetic affinities, a few similar names and common roots, such as ''Vols-'', ''Volt-'', and ''Host-'' (< PIE ''*ghos-ti-'' 'stranger, guest, host'). Liburnian and Venetic names sometimes also share suffixes in common, such as ''-icus'' and ''-ocus''. Jürgen Untermann, who has focused on Liburnian and Venetic onomastics, considers that only the Liburnians at the north-eastern Istrian coast were strongly Venetic. Untermann has suggested three groups of Liburnian names: one structurally similar to those of the Veneti and Histri; another linked to the Dalmatae, Iapodes and other

Illyrians The Illyrians (, ; ) were a group of Indo-European languages, Indo-European-speaking people who inhabited the western Balkan Peninsula in ancient times. They constituted one of the three main Paleo-Balkan languages, Paleo-Balkan populations, alon ...

on the mainland to the south of the Liburnians, and a third group of names that were common throughout Liburnian territory, and lacked any relation to those of their neighbors. Other proper names, such as those of local deities and toponyms also showed differing regional distributions. According to R. Katičić, Liburnian toponyms, in both structure and form, demonstrate diverse influences, including Pre-Indo-European, Indo-European and other, purely local features. Katičić has also stated that toponyms were distributed separately along ethnic and linguistic lines. S. Čače has noted that it can not be determined whether Liburnian was more related to the North Adriatic language group (Veneti, Histri) or the languages of Iapodes and Dalmatae, due to the scarcity of evidence. While the Liburnians differed significantly from the Histri and Veneti, both culturally and ethnically, they have been linked to the Dalmatae by their burial traditions. Other toponymical and onomastic similarities have been found between Liburnia and other regions of both Illyria and Asia Minor, especially Lycia, Lydia,

Caria Caria (; from Greek language, Greek: Καρία, ''Karia''; ) was a region of western Anatolia extending along the coast from mid-Ionia (Mycale) south to Lycia and east to Phrygia. The Carians were described by Herodotus as being Anatolian main ...

, Pisidia, Isauria, Pamphylia, Lycaonia and Cilicia, as well as similarities in elements of social organization, such as matriarchy/ gynecocracy (''gynaikokratia'') and the numerical organization of territory. These are also features of the wider Adriatic region, especially Etruria, Messapia and southern Italy. Toponymical and onomastic connections to Asia Minor may also indicate a Liburnian presence amongst the Sea Peoples. The old toponym ''Liburnum'' in Liguria may also link the Liburnian name to the Etruscans,M. Jokl in Ebert, Reallex. der Vorgeschichte, VI, 46-47 as well as the proposed Tyrsenian language family. The Liburnians underwent

Romanization In linguistics, romanization is the conversion of text from a different writing system to the Latin script, Roman (Latin) script, or a system for doing so. Methods of romanization include transliteration, for representing written text, and tra ...

after being conquered by the Romans in 35 BCE. The Liburnian language was replaced by

Latin Latin ( or ) is a classical language belonging to the Italic languages, Italic branch of the Indo-European languages. Latin was originally spoken by the Latins (Italic tribe), Latins in Latium (now known as Lazio), the lower Tiber area aroun ...

and underwent language death –most likely during

Late Antiquity Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown (historian), Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodiza ...

. The Liburnians nevertheless retained some of their cultural traditions until the 4th century CE, especially in the larger cities – a fact attested by archaeology.

Onomastics

Anthroponyms

The single name plus patronymic formula common among Illyrians is rare among Liburnians. In a region where the Roman three-name formula ('' praenomen'', '' nomen gentile'', ''

cognomen A ''cognomen'' (; : ''cognomina''; from ''co-'' "together with" and ''(g)nomen'' "name") was the third name of a citizen of ancient Rome, under Roman naming conventions. Initially, it was a nickname, but lost that purpose when it became hereditar ...

'': ''Caius Julius Caesar'') spread at an early date, a native two-name formula appears in several variants. Personal name plus family name is found in southern Liburnia, while personal name plus family name plus patronymic is found throughout the Liburnian area, for example: , , , , . Among the personal names of the so-called 'Liburnian' area are Aetor, Ceunus, Cliticus, Curticus, Dmocus, Lambicus, Oplus, Raecus, Suioca, Turus, Vadica, Verica, Viniocus, Volso, Voltimesis, Voltissa, and Zupricus. The majority of the following names are unknown among the eastern and southern neighbors of the Liburnians ( Dalmatae, etc.), and many have Venetic complements: The following names are judged to be exclusively Liburnian: *Aeia *Barcinus *Buzetius *Caminis (gen.) *Ceunus *Clausus *Granp (...). *Iaefus *Lastimeis (gen. ?) *Mamaester *Pasinus *Picusus *Tetenus *Vesclevesis (gen.). *Virno

Theonyms

Among the theonyms of the so-called 'Liburnian' area are female deities Iutossica, Latra and Sentona. * Anzotica or Ansotica - the Liburnian

Venus Venus is the second planet from the Sun. It is often called Earth's "twin" or "sister" planet for having almost the same size and mass, and the closest orbit to Earth's. While both are rocky planets, Venus has an atmosphere much thicker ...

; worshipped in Aenona. * Iicus - the only male Liburnian deity; worshipped in Aenona. * Iutossica - goddess worshipped in Albona. * Aitica - goddess worshipped in Albona. * Sentona - goddess worshipped in Albona, Flanona and Tarsatica, among the Northern Liburni. * Latra - goddess worshipped in Nedinum, Corinium, Asseria and Scardona.

Toponyms

Among the toponyms of the so-called 'Liburnian' area are Aenona, Alvona, Flanona, Fulfinium, Lopsica, Ludrum, and Scardona.

Notes

References

Sources

* *Untermann, J., ''Venetisches in Dalmatien'', Godišnjak (Annuaire) CBI, Sarajevo. 5, 5-22. * * * * * * * {{Paleo-Balkan languages Extinct languages of Europe Unclassified Indo-European languages Liburnia