Latifúndios

A ''latifundium'' (Latin: ''latus'', "spacious", and ''fundus'', "farm", "estate") was originally the term used by ancient Romans for great landed estates specialising in agriculture destined for sale: grain, olive oil, or wine. They were characteristic of Magna Graecia and Sicily, Egypt, Northwest Africa and Hispania Baetica. The ''latifundia'' were the closest approximation to industrialised agriculture in antiquity, and their economics depended upon slavery.

In the modern colonial period, the word was borrowed in Portuguese ''latifúndios'' and Spanish ''latifundios'' or simply ''fundos'' for similar extensive land grants, known as ''fazendas'' (in Portuguese) or ''haciendas'' (in Spanish), in their empires.

Ancient Rome

The basis of the ''latifundia'' notably in Magna Graecia (the south of Italy including Sicilia) and Hispania, was the ''ager publicus'' (state-owned land) that was confiscated from conquered people beginning in the 3rd century BC. As much as a third of the arable land of a new province was taken for ''agri publici'' and then divided up with at least the fiction of a competitive auction for leased estates rather than outright ownership.

Later, the practice of establishing agricultural '' coloniae'', especially from the early 1st century BC, as a way to reward Roman army veterans created smaller landholdings, which would then be acquired by large landowners in times of economic distress. Such consolidation into fewer hands, mainly Roman patricians, was not universally approved of, but efforts to reverse the trend by agrarian laws were generally unsuccessful.

Later in the Roman Empire, as leases were inherited, ownership of the former common lands became established by tradition, and the leases became taxable. Ownership of land, organised in the ''latifundia'', defined the Roman Senatorial class as it was their only socially acceptable source of wealth (as a result of the farmer-soldier tradition of Cinncinatus).

''Latifundia'' included a ''villa rustica'', including an often luxurious owner's residence, and the operation of the farm relied on a large number of slaves, sometimes kept in an ''ergastulum''. They produced agricultural products for sale and profit such as livestock (sheep and cattle) or olive oil, grain, garum and wine. Nevertheless, Rome had to import grain (in the Republican period, from Sicily and North Africa; in the Imperial era, from Egypt).

The ''latifundia'' quickly started economic consolidation as larger estates achieved greater economies of scale and productivity, and senator owners did not pay land taxes. Owners re-invested their profits by purchasing smaller neighbouring farms, since smaller farms had lower productivity and could not compete, in an ancient precursor of agribusiness.

''Latifundia'' also expanded to the Roman provinces of Mauretania (modern Maghreb) and in Hispania Baetica (modern Andalusia) with conquest of those areas.

The ''latifundia'' distressed Pliny the Elder (died AD 79) as he travelled, seeing only slaves working the land, not the sturdy Roman farmers who had been the backbone of the Republic's army. His writings can be seen as a part of the conservative reaction to the profit-oriented new attitudes of the upper classes of the Early Empire. He argued that the ''latifundia'' had ruined Italy and would ruin the Roman provinces as well. He reported that at one point, just six owners possessed half of the province of Africa, which may be a piece of rhetorical exaggeration as the North African cities were filled with flourishing landowners who filled the town councils.

As small farms were bought up by the wealthy with their vast supply of slaves, the newly landless peasantry moved to the city of Rome, where they became dependent on state subsidies. Free peasants did not completely disappear. Many became tenants on estates that were worked in two ways: partly directly controlled by the owner and worked by slaves, and partly leased to tenants.

The production system of the ''latifundia'' went into crisis between the 1st and 2nd century as the supply of slaves dwindled due to lack of new conquests.

Italy

In the 6th century, Cassiodorus was able to apply his own ''latifundia'' to support his short-lived ''Vivarium'' in the heel of Italy.

In Sicily, ''latifundia'' dominated the island from medieval times. They were only abolished by sweeping land reform mandating smaller farms in 1950–1962, funded from the ''Cassa per il Mezzogiorno'', the Italian government's development fund for southern Italy (1950–1984).John Paul Russo, "The Sicilian Latifundia", ''Italian Americana,'' March 1999, Vol. 17 Issue 1, pp. 40–57.

Spain

In the Iberian Peninsula, the ''Reconquista'' of Muslim territories of Spain, the Al-Andalus, by the Kingdom of Castile provided the Christian kingdom with sudden extensions of land, which the kings gave as a reward to nobility, mercenaries and military orders to exploit as ''latifundia'', which had been first established as the commercial olive oil and grain ''latifundia'' of Roman Hispania Baetica. The gifts finished the traditional small private ownership of land, eliminating a social class that had also been typical of the al-Andalus period.

In the Iberian peninsula, the possessions of the Church did not pass to private ownership until the ecclesiastical confiscations of Mendizábal