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''Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart'' () is a 12th-century
Old French
Old French (, , ; ) was the language spoken in most of the northern half of France approximately between the late 8th chivalric romance">-4; we might wonder whether there's a point at which it's appropriate to talk of the beginnings of French, that is, when it wa ...
chivalric romance poem by
Chrétien de Troyes
Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
, although it is believed that Chrétien worked on a story given to him by Marie of France, Countess of Champagne, Marie of France and he did not complete the text himself. It is the earliest known text to feature
Lancelot
Lancelot du Lac (French for Lancelot of the Lake), alternatively written as Launcelot and other variants, is a popular character in the Matter of Britain, Arthurian legend's chivalric romance tradition. He is typically depicted as King Arthu ...
as a prominent character, and the first to feature the love affair between him and
King Arthur
According to legends, King Arthur (; ; ; ) was a king of Great Britain, Britain. He is a folk hero and a central figure in the medieval literary tradition known as the Matter of Britain.
In Wales, Welsh sources, Arthur is portrayed as a le ...
's wife
Queen Guinevere
Guinevere ( ; ; , ), also often written in Modern English as Guenevere or Guenever, was, according to Arthurian legend, an early-medieval queen of Great Britain and the wife of King Arthur. First mentioned in literature in the early 12th cent ...
.
The story centers on Lancelot's rescue of Guinevere after she has been abducted by
Meleagant, the malevolent son of
King Bademagu, the ruler of the otherworldly Kingdom of Gorre. It deals with Lancelot's trials during the rescue, and his struggle to balance his duties as a warrior and as a lover bound by societal conventions.
Chrétien's work impacted
Arthurian legend
The Matter of Britain (; ; ; ) is the body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with Great Britain and Brittany and the legendary kings and heroes associated with it, particularly King Arthur. The 12th-century writer Geoffr ...
, establishing Lancelot's subsequent prominence in Arthurian literature. He was the first writer to deal with the themes of the lineage of Lancelot, his relationship to Guinevere, their secret love and infidelity, and the idea of
courtly love
Courtly love ( ; ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing various deeds or services for ladies b ...
. In the 13th century, the story was incorporated in a greatly expanded form in the
Vulgate Cycle
The ''Lancelot-Grail Cycle'', also known as the Vulgate Cycle or the Pseudo-Map Cycle, is an early 13th-century French Arthurian literary cycle consisting of interconnected prose episodes of chivalric romance originally written in Old French. T ...
.
Plot
''Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart'' (Chrétien de Troyes)
The book begins with
Guinevere
Guinevere ( ; ; , ), also often written in Modern English as Guenevere or Guenever, was, according to Arthurian legend, an early-medieval queen of Great Britain and the wife of King Arthur. First mentioned in literature in the early 12th cen ...
being abducted by
Meleagant, who has tricked
Arthur
Arthur is a masculine given name of uncertain etymology. Its popularity derives from it being the name of the legendary hero King Arthur.
A common spelling variant used in many Slavic, Romance, and Germanic languages is Artur. In Spanish and Ital ...
into allowing him to do so. After
Gawain
Gawain ( ), also known in many other forms and spellings, is a character in Matter of Britain, Arthurian legend, in which he is King Arthur's nephew and one of the premier Knights of the Round Table. The prototype of Gawain is mentioned und ...
protests Arthur's decision to let them go, Arthur allows Gawain to pursue them. While Gawain is searching for the pair, he runs into the (then unnamed)
Lancelot
Lancelot du Lac (French for Lancelot of the Lake), alternatively written as Launcelot and other variants, is a popular character in the Matter of Britain, Arthurian legend's chivalric romance tradition. He is typically depicted as King Arthu ...
who, after riding his horse to death, convinces Gawain to lend him a horse in pursuit of the queen. Lancelot then speeds after Guinevere. When Gawain catches up to him, Lancelot has worn out his new horse to death just as he did his previous one. Lancelot encounters a cart-driving dwarf, who says he will tell Lancelot where Guinevere and her captor went if Lancelot agrees to ride in his cart. Lancelot boards the cart reluctantly as this is a dishonorable form of transport for a knight. Gawain, unwilling to demean himself in this manner, chooses to follow on horseback.
Along this journey they encounter many obstacles. Lancelot is derided by locals along his journey for having reduced himself to such a lowly stature by riding in the cart. His first trial comes when a maiden offers a bed for the knights, but refuses to let Lancelot lie on it. It is then revealed to be a trap to kill the knights. It does not alarm Lancelot, however, because after escaping the trap, he returns to sleep in the very bed in which the trap was set.
After further encounters with beautiful women and rude knights, Lancelot and Gawain decide to part ways so that they may cover more ground. Lancelot endures many trials, including battling three axe-bearing men, lifting a heavy slab of stone from a mysterious tomb, battling a foreign army from
Logres
Logres (among various other forms and spellings) is King Arthur's realm in the Matter of Britain. The geographical area referred to by the name is south and eastern England. However, Arthurian writers such as Chrétien de Troyes and Wolfram von ...
, settling a dispute among those loyal to him over who may host him for the night, fighting against an overly prideful knight, and crossing an extremely sharp "sword-bridge" that divides Gorre from the outer world.
Lancelot finds Guinevere in the castle of Gorre, rescues her from Meleagant, but is driven away by her coldness, which is shown to be due to his hesitation to enter the cart. Lancelot leaves to find Gawain but is drawn back through his misadventures, and Guinevere apologizes for turning him away. Lancelot breaks into her tower and they spend a passionate night together. He injures his hand during his break-in, and blood from this injury stains Guinevere's sheets. Lancelot sneaks out of the tower before sunrise, and Meleagant accuses Guinevere of committing adultery with
Kay, who is the only wounded knight known of nearby. Lancelot challenges Meleagant to a fight to defend Guinevere's honor. After Meleagant's father
Bagdemagu interferes, Meleagant and Lancelot agree to fight in a year's time.
During this year, Lancelot is tricked by another dwarf and forced into imprisonment while Guinevere is allowed to return home. When it comes time to duel, Lancelot bargains with his captors to let him go and fight, and he promises to return. When Lancelot fights in the tournament, Guinevere asks him to lose in order to prove his love. He obliges, but when he begins to intentionally throw the battle, Guinevere changes her mind, now instructing him to win instead. Lancelot complies and beats the other tournament competitors, returning to his captors following the battle. Meleagant finds out from the captor's husband that the captor's wife was the one who agreed to release Lancelot temporarily (to fight at the tournament). He orders Lancelot to be locked away in a master craftsman's castle and Lancelot is imprisoned.
''Lancelot Continuation'' (Godefroi de Leigni)
It is revealed that the woman whom Lancelot had much earlier saved from kidnapping (she ordered Lancelot to sever her stalker's head) was actually Meleagant's sister. She searches for Lancelot in order to return his favor. She finds an axe, and the rope used by Lancelot to pull up food, and sends up the axe instead. Lancelot chops his way out and escapes with her to a secluded home that she owns. Meanwhile, Gawain prepares to battle Meleagant, since Lancelot is missing (a one-year rematch after the second duel was established). Lancelot arrives on time and, at last, fights Meleagant, who loses his temper and his arm (to Lancelot's sword), and is subsequently beheaded by Lancelot. Guinevere tepidly embraces Lancelot (they are in public) in the end.
History and influence
Dating and authorship
It is unknown when exactly the poem was composed. As posited by Anthime Fourrier,
it could have been written around 1175—1181, that is before or at the same time as
Chrétien de Troyes
Chrétien de Troyes (; ; 1160–1191) was a French poet and trouvère known for his writing on King Arthur, Arthurian subjects such as Gawain, Lancelot, Perceval and the Holy Grail. Chrétien's chivalric romances, including ''Erec and Enide'' ...
' own ''
Yvain, the Knight of the Lion'' (''Le Chevalier au Lion''), the two serving as companion pieces with overlapping narratives. Claude Luttrell dated it later as between 1186—1189.
[
While little is known definitively about the life of Chrétien, many speculative theories exist based on his work. He was employed as a writer by aristocrats of ]Champagne
Champagne (; ) is a sparkling wine originated and produced in the Champagne wine region of France under the rules of the appellation, which demand specific vineyard practices, sourcing of grapes exclusively from designated places within it, spe ...
, explaining the ''champenois'' dialect detected in his work, and he usually crafted stories based on material that was presented to him.
Lancelot
There is no known appearance or mention of an Arthurian knight named Lancelot (or similar) in the romances preceding Chrétien. Nevertheless, there are theories about a his prior existence in an original "Ur-Lancelot" story (perhaps closer to that in the later '' Lanzelet'' that claims to be a direct translation from an unspecified French book), in which case such hypothetical prototype text could have been written around 1150.
Chrétien first mentioned a character named "Lanceloz del Lac" in his early '' Erec and Enide'', listing him third among Arthur's knights after Gawain and Erec. Lancelot later briefly appears in ''Cligès
''Cligès'' (also ''Cligés'') is a poem by the medieval French poet Chrétien de Troyes, dating from around 1176. It is the second of his five Arthurian romances; '' Erec and Enide'', ''Cligès'', ''Yvain'', ''Lancelot'' and ''Perceval''. The ...
'', where he is defeated by Cligès in a joust.
Abduction of Guinevere
An abduction of the queen is one of the oldest motifs in Arthurian legend
The Matter of Britain (; ; ; ) is the body of medieval literature and legendary material associated with Great Britain and Brittany and the legendary kings and heroes associated with it, particularly King Arthur. The 12th-century writer Geoffr ...
, appearing also in Caradoc of Llancarfan's ''Life of Gildas
Gildas (English pronunciation: , Breton language, Breton: ''Gweltaz''; ) — also known as Gildas Badonicus, Gildas fab Caw (in Middle Welsh texts and antiquarian works) and ''Gildas Sapiens'' (Gildas the Wise) — was a 6th-century Britons (h ...
'', and carved on the archivolt
An archivolt (or voussure) is an ornamental Molding (decorative), moulding or band following the curve on the underside of an arch.
It is composed of bands of ornamental mouldings (or other architectural elements) surrounding an arched opening, ...
in Modena Cathedral. After Chrétien's version became popular, it was incorporated into the Lancelot-Grail Cycle
The ''Lancelot-Grail Cycle'', also known as the Vulgate Cycle or the Pseudo-Map Cycle, is an early 13th-century French Arthurian legend, Arthurian literary cycle consisting of interconnected prose episodes of chivalric romance originally writte ...
as a minor but central part of the vast Prose ''Lancelot'', and eventually into Thomas Malory
Sir Thomas Malory was an English writer, the author of ''Le Morte d'Arthur'', the classic English-language chronicle of the Arthurian legend, compiled and in most cases translated from French sources. The most popular version of ''Le Morte d'A ...
's influential ''Le Morte d'Arthur
' (originally written as '; Anglo-Norman French for "The Death of Arthur") is a 15th-century Middle English prose reworking by Sir Thomas Malory of tales about the legendary King Arthur, Guinevere, Lancelot, Merlin and the Knights of the ...
''.
Marie de Champagne
''The Knight of the Cart'' contains a preface
__NOTOC__
A preface () or proem () is an introduction to a book or other literature, literary work written by the work's author. An introductory essay written by a different person is a ''foreword'' and precedes an author's preface. The preface o ...
explaining how the story was assigned to him by Marie de Champagne
Marie of France (1145 – 11 March 1198) was a Capetian princess who became Countess of Champagne by her marriage to Henry I of Champagne. She ruled the County of Champagne as regent during Henry I's absence from 1179 to 1181; during the minority ...
. Marie de Champagne was well known for her interest in affairs of courtly love
Courtly love ( ; ) was a medieval European literary conception of love that emphasized nobility and chivalry. Medieval literature is filled with examples of knights setting out on adventures and performing various deeds or services for ladies b ...
and is believed to have suggested the inclusion of this theme into the story.
Chrétien credits Marie with providing the ( in Modern French). is a cognate of the English word "matter". It has been translated as meaning the well-known story (in this case, the story of Lancelot). is harder to translate. It's generally agreed to refer to the twist, the addition, or derivation (in this case, the affair).
Godefroi de Leigni
''The Knight of the Cart'' contains a postface explaining that the story was completed not by Chrétien himself, but by the clerk known as Godefroi de Leigni.[Chrétien de Troyes, D.D.R. Owen (translator) (1988) ''Arthurian Romances'', Tuttle Publishing, reprinted by ]Everyman's Library
Everyman's Library is a series of reprints of classic literature, primarily from the Western canon. It began in 1906. It is currently published in hardback by Random House. It was originally an imprint of J. M. Dent (itself later a division ...
. Godefroi's work begins after the episode of Lancelot's imprisonment in the tower.
A 12th-century French writer usually functioned as a part of a team, or a workshop attached to the court. It has been suggested that Chrétien did not finish the story himself because he did not support the adulterous themes.
Courtly love
The term was coined by the medievalist Gaston Paris
Bruno Paulin Gaston Paris (; 9 August 1839 – 5 March 1903) was a French literary historian, philologist, and scholar specialized in Romance studies and medieval French literature. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature in 1901, ...
in 1883 to help understand the relationship between Lancelot and Guinevere in ''The Knight of the Cart''. Alexander J. Denomy describes courtly love as "a type of sensual love and what distinguishes it from other forms of sexual love, from mere passion ��is its purpose or motive, its formal object, namely, the lover's progress and growth in natural goodness, merit, and worth."
In ''The Knight of the Cart'', Lancelot has become entranced by Guinevere and in more ways than one, is ruled by her. As the queen, Guinevere maintains power over the kingdom as well as Lancelot. When Meleagant questions their love and her adultery to the king, Lancelot challenges Meleagant to a battle to protect Guinevere’s honor. Lancelot has no shame in showing his affair with the queen: "Lancelot’s love explodes into romance without any beginning revealed or end foretold, fully formed and symbolized by the extraordinary fullness of his heart." This introduction of the love affair between Guinevere and Lancelot appears in many other stories after this poem was written.
References
Sources
*Chrétien de Troyes; Owen, D. D. R. (translator) (1988). ''Arthurian Romances''. New York: Everyman's Library
Everyman's Library is a series of reprints of classic literature, primarily from the Western canon. It began in 1906. It is currently published in hardback by Random House. It was originally an imprint of J. M. Dent (itself later a division ...
. .
*Colman, Rebecca V. "Reason and Unreason in Early Medieval Law." ''Journal of Interdisciplinary History'' 4 (Spring, 1974): 571–591.
*Grant, Edward. "Reason Asserts Itself: The Challenge to Authority in the Early Middle Ages to 1200." ''God and Reason in the Middle Ages''. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.
*Lacy, Norris J. (1991). "Chrétien de Troyes". In Norris J. Lacy, ''The New Arthurian Encyclopedia'', pp. 88–91. New York: Garland. .
*Roquebert, Michel. ''Les cathares et le Graal''.
*Hopkins, Andrea. ''The Book of Courtly Love: The Passionate Code of the Troubadours''. San Francisco: Harper, 1994. .
*Condren, Edward I. "The Paradox of Chrétien's Lancelot." ''MLN'' (May, 1970): 434–453
*Paris, Gaston. "Lancelot du Lac, II:Conte de la charrette." ''Romania'' 12 (1883): 459–534
*Burns, E. Jane.
Courtly Love: Who Needs It? Recent Feminist Work in the Medieval French Tradition.
''Signs'' 27.1 (2001): 23–57.
*Chretien de Troyes. ''Arthurian Romances''. Trans. William W. Kibler and Carleton W. Carroll. New York: Penguin Books, 2004.
*Noble, Peter. "The Character of Guinevere in the Arthurian Romances of Chretien de Troyes" ''The Modern Language Review'' July 1972: 524–535
External links
(includes ''Lancelot'')
The Princeton Charrette Project
The Charrette Project 2 at Baylor University
''Lancelot, the Knight of the Cart'' in a freely-distributable PDF document
*
{{Authority control
1170s books
12th-century novels
French poems
Medieval French romances
Courtly love
Love stories
Arthurian literature in French
French novels adapted into films
Unfinished literature completed by others
Works by Chrétien de Troyes