LAGEOS (), Laser Geodynamics Satellite or Laser Geometric Environmental Observation Survey, are a series of two scientific research

satellite A satellite or an artificial satellite is an object, typically a spacecraft, placed into orbit around a celestial body. They have a variety of uses, including communication relay, weather forecasting, navigation ( GPS), broadcasting, scient ...

s designed to provide an orbiting

laser ranging A laser is a device that emits light through a process of optical amplification based on the stimulated emission of electromagnetic radiation. The word ''laser'' originated as an acronym for light amplification by stimulated emission of radi ...

benchmark for geodynamical studies of the

Earth Earth is the third planet from the Sun and the only astronomical object known to Planetary habitability, harbor life. This is enabled by Earth being an ocean world, the only one in the Solar System sustaining liquid surface water. Almost all ...

. Each satellite is a high-density passive laser reflector in a very stable

medium Earth orbit A medium Earth orbit (MEO) is an geocentric orbit, Earth-centered orbit with an altitude above a low Earth orbit (LEO) and below a high Earth orbit (HEO) – between above sea level.

(MEO).

Function and operation

The spacecraft are

aluminum Aluminium (or aluminum in North American English) is a chemical element; it has chemical symbol, symbol Al and atomic number 13. It has a density lower than that of other common metals, about one-third that of steel. Aluminium has ...

-covered

brass Brass is an alloy of copper and zinc, in proportions which can be varied to achieve different colours and mechanical, electrical, acoustic and chemical properties, but copper typically has the larger proportion, generally copper and zinc. I ...

spheres with diameters of and masses of , covered with 426 cube-corner

retroreflector A retroreflector (sometimes called a retroflector or cataphote) is a device or surface that reflects light or other radiation back to its source with minimum scattering. This works at a wide range of angle of incidence (optics), angle of incidenc ...

s, giving them the appearance of

disco ball A disco ball (also known as a mirror ball or glitter ball) is a roughly sphere, spherical object that reflects light directed at it in many directions, producing a complex display. Its surface consists of hundreds or thousands of facets, nearl ...

s. Of these retroreflectors, 422 are made from fused silica glass while the remaining 4 are made from germanium to obtain measurements in the infrared for experimental studies of reflectivity and satellite orientation. They have no on-board sensors or electronics, and are not attitude-controlled. They orbit at an altitude of , well above

low Earth orbit A low Earth orbit (LEO) is an geocentric orbit, orbit around Earth with a orbital period, period of 128 minutes or less (making at least 11.25 orbits per day) and an orbital eccentricity, eccentricity less than 0.25. Most of the artificial object ...

and well below

geostationary orbit A geostationary orbit, also referred to as a geosynchronous equatorial orbit''Geostationary orbit'' and ''Geosynchronous (equatorial) orbit'' are used somewhat interchangeably in sources. (GEO), is a circular orbit, circular geosynchronous or ...

, at orbital inclinations of 109.8 and 52.6 degrees. Measurements are made by transmitting pulsed laser beams from Earth

ground station A ground station, Earth station, or Earth terminal is a terrestrial radio station designed for extraplanetary telecommunication with spacecraft (constituting part of the ground segment of the spacecraft system), or reception of radio waves fr ...

s to the satellites. The laser beams then return to Earth after hitting the reflecting surfaces; the travel times are precisely measured, permitting ground stations in different parts of the Earth to measure their separations to better than one inch in thousands of miles. The LAGEOS satellites make it possible to determine positions of points on the Earth with extremely high

accuracy Accuracy and precision are two measures of ''observational error''. ''Accuracy'' is how close a given set of measurements (observations or readings) are to their ''true value''. ''Precision'' is how close the measurements are to each other. The ...

due to the stability of their orbits. The high mass-to-area ratio and the precise, stable (

attitude Attitude or Attitude may refer to: Philosophy and psychology * Attitude (psychology), a disposition or state of mind ** Attitude change * Propositional attitude, a mental state held towards a proposition Science and technology * Orientation ...

-independent) geometry of the LAGEOS spacecraft, together with their extremely regular orbits, make these satellites the most precise position references available.

Mission goals

The LAGEOS mission consists of the following key goals: * Provide an accurate measurement of the satellite's position with respect to Earth. * Determine the planet's shape (

geoid The geoid ( ) is the shape that the ocean surface would take under the influence of the gravity of Earth, including gravitational attraction and Earth's rotation, if other influences such as winds and tides were absent. This surface is exte ...

). * Determine

tectonic plate Plate tectonics (, ) is the scientific theory that the Earth's lithosphere comprises a number of large tectonic plates, which have been slowly moving since 3–4 billion years ago. The model builds on the concept of , an idea developed durin ...

movements associated with

continental drift Continental drift is a highly supported scientific theory, originating in the early 20th century, that Earth's continents move or drift relative to each other over geologic time. The theory of continental drift has since been validated and inc ...

. Ground tracking stations located in many countries (including the US, Mexico, France, Germany, Poland, Australia, Egypt, China, Peru, Italy, and Japan) have ranged to the satellites and data from these stations are available worldwide to investigators studying crustal dynamics. There are two LAGEOS spacecraft, LAGEOS-1 launched in 1976, and LAGEOS-2 launched in 1992. , both LAGEOS spacecraft are routinely tracked by the ILRS network.

Time capsule

LAGEOS-1 (which is predicted to re-enter the atmosphere in 8.4 million years) also contains a 4 in × 7 in plaque designed by

Carl Sagan Carl Edward Sagan (; ; November 9, 1934December 20, 1996) was an American astronomer, planetary scientist and science communicator. His best known scientific contribution is his research on the possibility of extraterrestrial life, including e ...

to indicate to future humanity when LAGEOS-1 was launched. The plaque includes the numbers 1 to 10 in binary. In the upper right is a diagram of the Earth orbiting the Sun, with a binary number 1 indicating one revolution, equaling one year. It then shows 268,435,456 years in the past (binary: 2²⁸), indicated by a left arrow and the arrangement of the Earth's continents at that time (during the

Permian The Permian ( ) is a geologic period and System (stratigraphy), stratigraphic system which spans 47 million years, from the end of the Carboniferous Period million years ago (Mya), to the beginning of the Triassic Period 251.902 Mya. It is the s ...

period). The present arrangement of the Earth's continents is indicated with a 0 and both forward and backward arrows. Then the estimated arrangement of the continents in 8.4 million years with a right facing arrow and 8,388,608 in binary (2²³). LAGEOS itself is shown at launch on the 0 year, and falling to the Earth in the 8.4 million year diagram.

Launch data

* LAGEOS 1, launched 4 May 1976,

NSSDC The NASA Space Science Data Coordinated Archive (NSSDCA) serves as the permanent archive for NASA space science mission data. "Space science" includes astronomy and astrophysics, solar and space plasma (physics), plasma physics, and planetary scien ...

ID 1976-039A, NORAD number 8820 * LAGEOS 2, deployed 23 October 1992 from

STS-52 STS-52 was a Space Shuttle program, NASA Space Shuttle mission using Space Shuttle Columbia, Space Shuttle ''Columbia'', launched on October 22, 1992. Crew Crew seat assignments Mission highlights Primary mission objectives were d ...

, NSSDC ID 1992-070B, NORAD number 22195

References

External links

* {{official website, http://lageos.gsfc.nasa.gov/
LAGEOS-1, -2 (International Laser Ranging Service)

LAGEOS-1 page at US National Space Science Data Center

LAGEOS-2 page at US National Space Science Data Center

LAGEOS-1, -2 (eoPortal.org)

LAGEOS video from NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center

LAGEOS video (1976) from AP Television

LAGEOS Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections

Bob Spencer Collection, The University of Alabama in Huntsville Archives and Special Collections
Files of Robert Spencer
planner
on the LAGEOS project. NASA satellites orbiting Earth Time capsules Laser ranging satellites Italian Space Agency Satellite series Gravimetry satellites