The Cariban languages are a

family Family (from la, familia) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). The purpose of the family is to maintain the well-being of its ...

of languages indigenous to northeastern

South America South America is a continent entirely in the Western Hemisphere and mostly in the Southern Hemisphere, with a relatively small portion in the Northern Hemisphere at the northern tip of the continent. It can also be described as the southe ...

. They are widespread across northernmost South America, from the mouth of the

Amazon River The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of t ...

to the

Colombia Colombia (, ; ), officially the Republic of Colombia, is a country in South America with insular regions in North America—near Nicaragua's Caribbean coast—as well as in the Pacific Ocean. The Colombian mainland is bordered by the Car ...

Andes The Andes, Andes Mountains or Andean Mountains (; ) are the longest continental mountain range in the world, forming a continuous highland along the western edge of South America. The range is long, wide (widest between 18°S – 20°S ...

, and they are also spoken in small pockets of central Brazil. The languages of the Cariban family are relatively closely related. There are about three dozen, but most are spoken only by a few hundred people.

Macushi The Macushi ( pt, Macuxi) are an indigenous people living in the borderlands of southern Guyana, northern Brazil in the state of Roraima, and in an eastern part of Venezuela. Identification The Macushi are also known as the Macusi, Macussi, ...

is the only language among them with numerous speakers, estimated at 30,000. The Cariban family is well known among linguists partly because one language in the family—

Hixkaryana Hixkaryana is one of the Cariban languages, spoken by just over 500 people on the Nhamundá River, a tributary of the Amazon River in Brazil. It is one of around a dozen languages that are described as having object–verb–subject word order ...

—has a default

word order In linguistics, word order (also known as linear order) is the order of the syntactic constituents of a language. Word order typology studies it from a cross-linguistic perspective, and examines how different languages employ different orders. C ...

of object–verb–subject. Previous to their discovery of this, linguists believed that this order did not exist in any spoken

natural language In neuropsychology, linguistics, and philosophy of language, a natural language or ordinary language is any language that has evolved naturally in humans through use and repetition without conscious planning or premeditation. Natural languages ...

. In the 16th century, Cariban peoples expanded into the

Lesser Antilles The Lesser Antilles ( es, link=no, Antillas Menores; french: link=no, Petites Antilles; pap, Antias Menor; nl, Kleine Antillen) are a group of islands in the Caribbean Sea. Most of them are part of a long, partially volcanic island arc betwe ...

. There they killed or displaced, and also mixed with the Arawak peoples who already inhabited the islands. The resulting language— Kalhíphona or Island Carib—was Carib in name but largely Arawak in substance. The Carib male conquerors took Arawak women as wives, and the latter passed on their own language on to the children. For a time, Arawak was spoken by women and children and Carib by adult men, but as each generation of Carib-Arawak boys reached adulthood, they acquired less Carib until only basic vocabulary and a few grammatical elements were left. That form of

Island Carib The Kalinago, also known as the Island Caribs or simply Caribs, are an indigenous people of the Lesser Antilles in the Caribbean. They may have been related to the Mainland Caribs (Kalina) of South America, but they spoke an unrelated languag ...

became extinct in the

in the 1920s, but it survives as

Garífuna The Garifuna people ( or ; pl. Garínagu in Garifuna) are a people of mixed free African and indigenous American ancestry that originated in the Caribbean island of Saint Vincent and speak Garifuna, an Arawakan language, and Vincentian Cr ...

, or "Black Carib," in

Central America Central America ( es, América Central or ) is a subregion of the Americas. Its boundaries are defined as bordering the United States to the north, Colombia to the south, the Caribbean Sea to the east, and the Pacific Ocean to the west. ...

. The gender distinction has dwindled to only a handful of words.

Dominica Dominica ( or ; Kalinago: ; french: Dominique; Dominican Creole French: ), officially the Commonwealth of Dominica, is an island country in the Caribbean. The capital, Roseau, is located on the western side of the island. It is geographically ...

is the only island in the eastern

Caribbean The Caribbean (, ) ( es, El Caribe; french: la Caraïbe; ht, Karayib; nl, De Caraïben) is a region of the Americas that consists of the Caribbean Sea, its islands (some surrounded by the Caribbean Sea and some bordering both the Caribbean Se ...

to retain some of its

pre-Columbian In the history of the Americas, the pre-Columbian era spans from the original settlement of North and South America in the Upper Paleolithic period through European colonization, which began with Christopher Columbus's voyage of 1492. Usually, th ...

population, descendants of the Carib Indians, about 3,000 of whom live on the island's east coast.

Genetic relations

The Cariban languages share irregular morphology with the Ge and Tupi families. Ribeiro connects them all in a Je–Tupi–Carib family. Meira, Gildea, & Hoff (2010) note that likely morphemes in proto-Tupian and proto-Cariban are good candidates for being cognates, but that work so far is insufficient to make definitive statements.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Guato, Kawapana,

Nambikwara The Nambikwara (also called Nambikuára) is an indigenous people of Brazil, living in the Amazon. Currently about 1,200 Nambikwara live in indigenous territories in the Brazilian state of Mato Grosso along the Guaporé and Juruena rivers. Thei ...

, Taruma, Warao,

Arawak The Arawak are a group of indigenous peoples of northern South America and of the Caribbean. Specifically, the term "Arawak" has been applied at various times to the Lokono of South America and the Taíno, who historically lived in the Great ...

Bororo The Bororo are indigenous people of Brazil, living in the state of Mato Grosso. They also extended into Bolivia and the Brazilian state of Goiás. The Western Bororo live around the Jauru and Cabaçal rivers. The Eastern Bororo ( Orarimogodoge ...

, Jeoromitxi, Karaja,

Rikbaktsa The Rikbaktsa are an Indigenous peoples in Brazil, indigenous ethnic group from the Mato Grosso region of Brazil. Name ''Rikbaktsa'' (Rikbaktsa ''rik'', person + ''bak'', human being + ''tsa'' lural suffix, the group's self-denomination, can ...

, and Tupi language families due to contact. Extensive lexical similarities between Cariban and various

Macro-Jê languages Macro-Jê (also spelled Macro-Gê) is a medium-sized language stock in South America, mostly in Brazil but also in the Chiquitanía region in Santa Cruz, Bolivia, as well as (formerly) in small parts of Argentina and Paraguay. It is centered o ...

suggest that Cariban languages had originated in the

Lower Amazon The Amazon River (, ; es, Río Amazonas, pt, Rio Amazonas) in South America is the largest river by discharge volume of water in the world, and the disputed longest river system in the world in comparison to the Nile. The headwaters of t ...

region (rather than in the

Guiana Highlands The Guianas, sometimes called by the Spanish loan-word ''Guayanas'' (''Las Guayanas''), is a region in north-eastern South America which includes the following three territories: * French Guiana, an overseas department and region of France * ...

). There they were in contact with early forms of Macro-Jê languages, which were likely spoken in an area between the Parecis Plateau and upper Araguaia River.

Family division

The Cariban languages are closely related. In many cases where one of the languages is more distinct, this is due to influence from neighboring languages rather than an indication that it is not closely related. According to Kaufman (2007), "Except for Opon, Yukpa, Pimenteira and Palmela (and possibly Panare), the Cariban languages are not very diverse phonologically and lexically (though more so than Romance, for example)."Kaufman, Terrence. 2007. "South America". In: R. E. Asher and Christopher Moseley (eds.), ''Atlas of the World’s Languages'' (2nd edition), 59–94. London: Routledge.

Previous classifications

Good data has been collected around ca. 2000 on most Cariban languages; classifications prior to that time (including Kaufman 2007, which relies on the earlier work) are unreliable. Several such classifications have been published; the one shown here, by Derbyshire (1999) divides Cariban into seven branches. A traditional geographic classification into northern and southern branches is cross referenced with (N) or (S) after each language. *

Galibi The Kalina, also known as the Caribs or mainland Caribs and by several other names, are an indigenous people native to the northern coastal areas of South America. Today, the Kalina live largely in villages on the rivers and coasts of Venezuela, ...

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Yaroupi River The Yaloupi or Yaroupi is a river in French Guiana. It rises in the south of the country, flowing northeast until it reaches the river Oyapock near the temporary village of Oscar.Unani River. (Unattested.) *Rucuyene - extinct language once spoken in the same colony on the Lawa River. *Noyene - once spoken on the Cuc River, state of Pará. (Unattested.) *Yapacoye - once spoken on the left bank of the

Itany River The Litani or Itany is a river which forms part of the boundary between Suriname and French Guiana. It is a tributary, or the upper course, of the Maroni. The boundary is disputed, with Suriname also claiming land to the east of the river. The ...

, French Guiana. (Unattested.) *Aracajú / Uaraguazú - extinct language mixed with many Tupi elements, once spoken on the Gurupamba River and Parú de Leste River, Pará. ;Trio group *Trio / Diáu / Tirió - spoken on the

Tapanahoni River The Tapanahony River (sometimes called Tapanahoni) is a major river in the south eastern part of Suriname, South America. The river originates in the Southern part of the Eilerts de Haan Mountains, near the border with Brazil. It joins the Marowijn ...

Corentijn River The Courantyne/Corentyne/Corantijn River is a river in northern South America in Suriname and Guyana. It is the longest river in the country and creates the border between Suriname and the East Berbice-Corentyne region of Guyana. Its tributar ...

, and

Palumeu River Paloemeu River or Palumeu River is a river in the Sipaliwini District of Suriname. It joins the Tapanahony River at the village of Paloemeu. See also *List of rivers of Suriname References

*Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993. Ri ...

, Suriname, and between the sources of the Parú de Leste River and Parú de Oeste River, state of Pará. *Urucuyana / Waiano - spoken on the left bank of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. *Wama - spoken by a tribe at the sources of the

Oelemari River Oelemari River (also Ulemari) is a river of Suriname. The Oelemari River flows into the Litani which is a tributary to the Marowijne. The river is sourced from the Oranjegebergte which in turn is a subdivision of the Tumuk Humak Mountains. Gol ...

, Suriname. *Tliometesen / Oyaricule - spoken by a few individuals between the

Litani River The Litani River ( ar, نهر الليطاني, Nahr al-Līṭānī), the classical Leontes ( grc-gre, Λέοντες, Léontes, lions), is an important water resource in southern Lebanon. The river rises in the fertile Beqaa Valley, west of B ...

and

, Suriname. *Ocomayana / Kumayena / Comayana - spoken at the sources of the

Coeroeni River The Coeroeni River is a river in South America. It arises in the Tumuc-Humac Mountains, which forms the drainage divide between Pará, Brazil, and Suriname; from there it flows northward. The river is fed by the Aramatau, Kutari and Sipaliwini R ...

, Suriname, and at the sources of the

Oronoque River The Oronoque River is a river in Guyana and a tributary of the New River. The river is located in the Tigri Area which is disputed between Guyana and Suriname. The source was discovered in September 1936, and is considered the international b ...

in Guyana. *Pianocoto - once spoken at the sources of the

Trombetas River The Trombetas is a large river on the northern side of the Amazon River. Course The Trombetas is long, and is navigable by 500 ton vessels for a stretch of . The Trombetas river gives birth to very many rivers, including the Anamu river. It is ...

and the Jamunda River, now at the mouth of the

Marapi River The Marapi (), or Mount Marapi ( min, ڬونوواڠ ماراڤي, Gunuang Marapi) is a complex volcano in West Sumatra, Indonesia. Its name means ''Mountain of Fire'', and it is the most active volcano in Sumatra. Its elevation is . A number of ...

in the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. *Aramihoto - spoken by a small tribe in Suriname on the upper course of the

. (Unattested.) *Prohyana - spoken in the same colony in the

Eilerts de Haan Gebergte The Eilerts de Haan Mountains ( nl, Eilerts de Haangebergte) are a mountain range in Sipaliwini District, Suriname. It is a southern part of Wilhelmina Mountains and is maximum 986 m high. The mountain range is part of the Central Suriname Nature R ...

. (Unattested.) *Maipuridjana - spoken in Suriname on the

Sipaliwini River Sipaliwini River is a river of Suriname, the main source of the Courantyne River. It gives its name to the village of Sipaliwini Savanna and to the Sipaliwini District. It flows through the village of Kwamalasamutu. The name translates to thornba ...

. (Unattested.) *Rangú - spoken at the sources of the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. *Acuriyo - spoken at the sources of the

, Suriname. (Unattested.) *Aramisho - spoken on the upper course of the Parú de Leste River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Aramayana - spoken by the southern neighbors of the Aramisho tribe. (Unattested.) *Aramagoto - spoken between the upper courses of the Parú de Leste River and the Parú de Oeste River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Pianoi - spoken at the sources and on the upper course of the Citaré River, Pará. (Unattested.) ;Chiquena group *Chiquena / Shikiana - spoken on the Apiniwau River, Guyana, and at the sources of the Panemá River, Pará. (Farabee 1924, pp. 195-196.) *Zurumata - once spoken in a village of the same name on the upper course of the

, Pará, now probably extinct. (Unattested.) *Ingarüne - spoken at the sources of the Panemá River and its tributaries. (Unattested.) *Salumá / Charúma - spoken between the upper courses of the

, Uanabé River, and Tunúru River, Pará. *Prehnoma - spoken by a small tribe west of the Pianocoto tribe. (Unattested.) *Caicusiana - spoken on the Tunúru River south of the Salumá tribe. (Unattested.) *Tunayana - spoken between the middle courses of the Panemá River and Tunúru River. (Unattested.) *Sereu - spoken east of the sources of the Cachorro River. (Unattested.) *Cahuyana - spoken on the middle course of the

. (Unattested.) *Marachó - spoken by an unknown tribe on the middle course of the

Cuminá River The Paru de Oeste River (Erepecuru River) is a tributary of the Trombetas River in Pará in north-central Brazil. Geography In addition to the main river, it has a "loop" known as the Cuminá River, which finally merges into the Paru de Oeste Riv ...

. (Unattested.) *Pauxi / Pawiyana - spoken on the right bank of the middle course of the

Erepecurú River The Paru de Oeste River (Erepecuru River) is a tributary of the Trombetas River in Pará in north-central Brazil. Geography In addition to the main river, it has a "loop" known as the Cuminá River, which finally merges into the Paru de Oeste Riv ...

(

); now perhaps extinct. *Waríkyana - extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the

. (Unattested.) *Uayeué - spoken on the

Mapuera River The Mapuera River is a tributary of the Trombetas River in Pará state in north-central Brazil. The river basin lies partly within the Grão-Pará Ecological Station, the largest fully protected tropical forest conservation unit on the planet. S ...

and its tributary Urubú de Silves River. *Cachuena / Kaxiuâna / Casiana / Cachoarí - spoken by a few families at the mouth of the Cachorro River. *Mutuan - once spoken on the lower course of the

Nhamundá River Nhamundá River or Jamundá River (Yamundá River in Spanish) is a river in northern Brazil, which marks part of the northeastern boundary between states of Amazonas and Pará. The 300 km long Nhamundá River originates in the plateau '' S ...

. *Cariguano - once spoken on the Panemá River. (Unattested.) *Conduri - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the

. (Unattested.) *Paraugoaru - extinct language once spoken on the Capó River, a tributary of the

. (Unattested.) ;Waiwai group *Waiwai / Woaywai - spoken at the sources of the

Essequibo River The Essequibo River ( Spanish: ''Río Esequibo'' originally called by Alonso de Ojeda ''Río Dulce'') is the largest river in Guyana, and the largest river between the Orinoco and Amazon. Rising in the Acarai Mountains near the Brazil–Guyana b ...

, Guyana and at the sources of the

, state of Pará, Brazil. *Faranakaru - spoken at the sources of the

south of the Waiwai tribe. (Unattested.) *Faranauaru - spoken on the left bank of the

. (Unattested.) *Parucoto / Katawian - spoken on the middle course of the

and between the sources of the Acarí River and Cachorrinho River. (Farabee 1924, pp. 192-193.) *Chiriwiyana - spoken at the sources of the Acarí River. (Unattested.) *Ororicó - spoken on the upper course of the Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.) *Cotonúru - spoken between the Cachorro River and Cachorrinho River. (Unattested.) *Totocumu / Catuena - spoken between the sources of the Acarí River and

Ipitinga River The Ipitinga River is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil, a tributary of the Jari River. Part of the river's basin is in the Maicuru Biological Reserve. See also *List of rivers of Pará List of rivers in Pará (Brazilian State). T ...

. (Unattested.) *Chawiyana - spoken on the right bank of the upper course of the

, Amazonas. (Unattested.) *Uaiboí / Babui / Wabou - spoken on the middle course of the

. *Hishcariana / Ishkariyána / Tucano - spoken on the middle course of the

. *Xauwiyana - spoken by the neighbors of the Hishcariana tribe. (Unattested.) *Uasaí - spoken by an unknown tribe on the Urubu River and

Jatapu River The Jatapu River is a major tributary of the Uatumã River. Situated within the Amazon River basin, it is located in the eastern portion of state of Amazonas in north-western Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic ...

, Amazonas. (Unattested.) *Apoto / Apanto - extinct language once spoken south of the Uaiboi tribe on the

. (Unattested.) *Orocoto - once spoken between the Urubu River and

. (Unattested.) *Taguari - extinct language once spoken between the

and

. (Unattested.) *Pariquí - once spoken between the mouths of the

Uatumã River The Uatumã River (sometimes spelled Uatamã) is a river flowing through the state of Amazonas in Brazil. It is a northern tributary of the Amazon River, and known for its extensive peacock bass population. It is a blackwater river. The river f ...

and

Negro River Río Negro (Spanish and Portuguese, 'Black River') may refer to: Rivers Brazil * Rio Negro (Amazon), tributary of the Amazon River * Rio Negro (Mato Grosso do Sul) * Rio Negro (Paraná) * Rio Negro (Rio de Janeiro) * Rio Negro (Rondônia) * ...

. (Unattested.) *Tapicari - spoken on the Mucajaí River. (Unattested.) *Bonari / Boanari - once spoken on the

, Amazonas; now perhaps extinct. ;Yauapery group *Yauapery / Atroahi - spoken on the middle course of the Yauapery River, state of Amazonas. *Uaimiri / Wahmirí - spoken at the sources of the Curiuaú River, state of Amazonas. *Crixaná / Quirixana - spoken between the middle course of the Yauapery River and the Curiuaú River, now probably extinct. ;Pauishana group *Pauishana - spoken between the

Catrimani River The Catrimani River is a river of Roraima state in northern Brazil. See also *List of rivers of Roraima List of rivers in Roraima (Brazilian State). The list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries indented under each large ...

and Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. ;Macusi group *Macusi / Makushí - spoken on the

Rupununi River The Rupununi is a region in the south-west of Guyana, bordering the Brazilian Amazon. The Rupununi river, also known by the local indigenous peoples as ''Raponani'', flows through the Rupununi region. The name Rupununi originates from the word '' ...

, Guyana, and at the sources of the

Tacutu River The Takutu River (Takatu River, Tacutu River) is a river in the Upper Takutu-Upper Essequibo Region of Guyana and Roraima in Brazil. It forms part of the boundary between the two countries. The confluence of the Takutu and Uraricoera Rivers form ...

and on the middle course of the Branco River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. *Monoicó - spoken on the

Cotingo River The Cotingo River ( pt, Rio Cotingo) is a river of Roraima state in northern Brazil, a tributary of the Surumu River. It flows through the Raposa Serra do Sol indigenous territory. For many years there has been discussion over building a major h ...

, Brazil. (Unattested.) *Keseruma - spoken on the

. (A. Meyer 1951.) *Asepáng - spoken to the south of the Keseruma tribe. (Unattested.) *Eliáng - spoken to the south of the Asepáng tribe. (Unattested.) *Pezacó - spoken to the south of the Eliáng tribe. (Unattested.) *Quenoloco - spoken at the sources of the

. (Unattested.) *Teweia - spoken on the

. (Unattested.) *Purucotó / Progoto - spoken on the Uraricapará River, territory of Rio Branco. *Wayumara / Azumara / Guimara - spoken between the Mucajaí River and

Uraricoera River The Uraricoera River (Uraricuera) is a river of Roraima state in northern Brazil. The confluence of the Uraricoera and Takutu Rivers forms the Branco River. Basin The river drains the Guayanan Highlands moist forests ecoregion. Part of the r ...

and in a part of Maracá Island. *Paraviyana / Paravilhana - extinct language once spoken between the

and Caratirimani River, Rio Branco. *Zapara / Sapará - spoken in the middle and eastern parts of Maracá Island. ;Pemón group *Taurepän / Taulipáng / Ipuricoto / Pemón - spoken between the Uraricuena River and Mount Roraima to the

Caroní River The Caroní River is the second most important river of Venezuela, the second in flow, and one of the longest, from the Kukenan tepui through to its confluence with the Orinoco River. The name "Caroní" is applied starting from the confluence ...

, in the border zone of Brazil and Venezuela. *Arecuná - spoken at the sources of the

and

Paragua River The Paragua River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. It is the largest tributary of the Caroní River. The river drains the Guayanan Highlands moist forests ecoregion. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is ...

, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. *Ingaricó - spoken to the north of Mount Roraima, border region of Brazil and Venezuela. *Patamona - spoken on the

Potaro River The Potaro River is a river in Guyana that runs from Mount Ayanganna area of the Pakaraima Mountains for approximately before flowing into the Essequibo River, Guyana's largest river. The renowned Kaieteur Falls is on the Potaro. Features Nin ...

and

Ireng River The Ireng River (or Maú River, generally used in Portuguese) forms part of Guyana's western border with Brazil. It flows through the valleys of the Pakaraima Mountains for most of its length. It is the only major river in Guyana which flows from ...

, Guyana. (F. Lutz 1912 passim, only a few words.) *Camaracoto - spoken in the state of Bolívar, Venezuela, on the

and

. *Arinagoto - once spoken on the

, state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Paraparucota - once spoken between the Caura River and

Cuchivero River Cuchivero River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ...

, state of Bolívar; now extinct. (Unattested.) *Quiriquiripa - extinct language once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River. (Unattested.) *Aguaricoto - extinct language once spoken on the lower course of the Caura River, the same region. (Unattested.) *Serecong / Sarrakong - once spoken in the same region at the sources of the Mahú River. (Unattested.) *Chiricum - once spoken by the western neighbors of the Taurepán tribe in the Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.) *Achirigoto - once spoken on the left bank of the Caura River, middle course, in the state of Bolívar. (Unattested.) *Paudacoto - once spoken in the state of Bolívar at the sources of the

Aro River Aro River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries inden ...

. (Unattested.) *Cachirigoto - once spoken in the state of Bolívar south of the Camaracotó tribe. (Unattested.) *Barinagoto - once spoken at the mouth of the

, Bolívar state, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Arebato - once spoken in the village of Cuchara on the Caura River in the state of Bolívar, now perhaps extinct. (Unattested.) *Armacoto - once spoken in the same region between the

and Merevari River. (Unattested.) *Mauitsi - once spoken at the sources of the

in the same region. (Unattested.) *Uaica / Waica - spoken by a few families on the Yuruari River and

Cuyuni River The Cuyuni River is a South American river and a tributary of the Essequibo River. It rises in the Guiana Highlands of Venezuela, where it descends northward to El Dorado, and turns eastward to meander through the tropical rain forests of the C ...

, state of Bolívar. *Acawai / Capong - spoken in Guyana on the

Moruca River The Moruka River or Moruca River is a river in the Barima-Waini region of northern Guyana. The mouth of the river opens to the Atlantic Ocean. Mangrove forests make up the shoreline, turning into swampy savannah wetlands as it moves west. The Moru ...

, Acarabisi River, and

Pomeroon River The Pomeroon River (also ''Río Pomerón'' ''or Pomaron'') is located in Guyana, South America, situated between the Orinoco and the Essequibo rivers. The area has long been inhabited by Lokono people. The Pomeroon River is also one of the deepes ...

. ;Maquiritaré group *Decuána / Deukwana / Maquiritaré - spoken on the Caura River,

Ventuari River The Ventuari River is the largest tributary of the Orinoco in southern Venezuela. The Ventuari flows from south-central Venezuela in the Guiana Highlands southwest into the Orinoco River. It is long and its major tributary is the Manapiare River ...

, Merevari River, and Auari River, state of Bolívar and Amazonas territory, Venezuela, and between the

and Majari River, territory of Rio Branco, Brazil. *Yecuaná / Mayongcong - spoken on the Caura River southwest of the Arecuna tribe, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. *Ihuruána - spoken at the sources of the

, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. *Cunuaná / Kunuhana - spoken in the same territory at the sources of the

Cunucunuma River Cunucunuma River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela References

*Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993. Rivers of Venezuela {{Venezuela-river-stub ...

. (only four words.) *Morononi - extinct language once spoken in the same territory on the

. (Unattested.) *Puipuitene - extinct language once spoken on the same river in the same territory by the neighbors of the Decuaná tribe. (Unattested.) *Acariana - once spoken by the neighbors of the Morononi tribe on the

Orinoco River The Orinoco () is one of the longest rivers in South America at . Its drainage basin, sometimes known as the Orinoquia, covers , with 76.3 percent of it in Venezuela and the remainder in Colombia. It is the fourth largest river in the wor ...

. (Unattested.) *Ocomesiane - once spoken in the same region on the

Padamo River Padamo River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries in ...

. (Unattested.) *Areviriana - once spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Ihuruána tribe. (Unattested.) *Jure - once spoken on the left bank of the middle course of the

. (Unattested.) *Pishauco / Pshavaco - once spoken on the Serra Tepequem, Rio Branco territory. (Unattested.) *Mejepure - once spoken on the left ban1e of the lower course of the

. (Unattested.) *Aberiana - once spoken by the neighbors of the Acariana tribe on the upper course of the

. (Unattested.) ;Mapoyo group *Mapoyo / Nepoyo - spoken by a small tribe between the

Parguaza River Parguaza River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries i ...

and

Suapure River Suapuare River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries i ...

, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. *Carinuaca - extinct language once spoken in the area between the Ihuruána and Yauarána tribes, territory of Amazonas, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Curasicana / Kurushikiána / Orechicano - once spoken at the sources of the Biehita River, now by only a few individuals. (Unattested.) *Wökiare / Uaiquire - unknown language spoken in the same region on the

Paru River The Paru River is a northern tributary of the lower Amazon in Pará state in north-central Brazil. The river flows through the Uatuma-Trombetas moist forests ecoregion. Part of the river's basin is in the Maicuru Biological Reserve. In popular c ...

. (Unattested.) *Yauarána / Yabarána - language spoken in the same territory on the

Manapiare River Manapiare River is a river of Venezuela. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ...

. *Quaqua - once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Mapoyo tribe. (Unattested.) *Guaquiri - once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Curasicana tribe. (Unattested.) *Pareca - spoken in the region west of the

, now probably extinct. (Unattested.) *Taparito - extinct language once spoken on the middle course of the Caura River. (Unattested.) *Cadupinapo - once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Achirigoto tribe. (Unattested.) *Tabajari - now probably extinct, once spoken on the left bank of the

Erebato River Erebato River is a river of Venezuela, tributary of the Caura River. It is part of the Orinoco River basin. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, ...

, state of Bolívar. (Unattested.) ;Panare group *Panáre - language of a small tribe, spoken at the sources of the

, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. *Abira - once spoken at the sources of the

. (Unattested.) *Eye - once spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Panáre tribe at the sources of the

. (Unattested.) ;Tamanaco group *Tamanaco - extinct language once spoken along the

from the mouth of the Caroni River to the mouth of the

, state of Bolívar, Venezuela. *Chayma / Guarapiche / Sayma - extinct language once spoken on the

Guarapiche River Guarapiche River is a river of north-eastern Venezuela. It flows into the San Juan River (Venezuela), San Juan River. Course Its origin is in the canyon named Puertas de Miraflores in the Turimiquire Range. Together with it flows into a short body ...

, state of Anzoátegui, Venezuela. *Cumanagota - extinct language once spoken on the

Cabo Codera Cabo is Spanish, Portuguese and Galician for cape (geography), cape. It may refer to: * Cabo San Lucas, a resort city in Baja California Sur, Mexico * Cabó, a municipality in Alt Urgell, Lleida, Catalonia, Spain Other places * Cabo Blanco Absol ...

and near

Cumaná Cumaná () is the capital city of Venezuela's Sucre State. It is located east of Caracas. Cumaná was one of the first cities founded by Spain in the mainland Americas and is the oldest continuously-inhabited Hispanic-established city in South ...

, state of Sucre, Venezuela. *Tivericoto - once spoken on the coast of the state of Monagas, Venezuela *Palenque - once spoken between the

Unare River The Unare River is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea. In the 17th century the Dutch had a fort at the mouth of the river. It was constructed to protect their salt collection in the area. The other Dutch fort ever to stand on w ...

and

Tamanaco River Tamanaco River is a river of northern Venezuela. It flows into the Caribbean Sea. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributarie ...

, Guárico state. *Caraca - once spoken around the modern capital of Caracas, Venezuela. (A. Espinosa (Vazquez de Espinosa) 1948, pp. 36-37, only a few words.) *Ciparigoto - extinct language once spoken on the

Yaracuy River The Yaracuy River is a river of Venezuela. It drains into the Caribbean Sea. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela This is a list of rivers in Venezuela. By drainage basin This list is arranged by drainage basin, with respective tributaries ind ...

and Aroa River, state of Yaracuy. (Unattested.) *Teque - once spoken in the Guaire valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.) *Tacarigua - once spoken around Lake Valencia, Miranda. (Unattested.) *Toromaina - once spoken on the San Pedro River, federal district of Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Arbaco - once spoken around the modern city of Victoria, state of Aragua. (Unattested.) *Meregoto - once spoken on the western shore of Lake Valencia in the state of Aragua. (Unattested.) *Quiriquire - extinct language once spoken on the

Tuy River The Tuy River is a river of northern Venezuela, in the Valles del Tuy (Tuy Valleys) of Miranda State. The principal river of Miranda, it flows north from Aragua State through Miranda into the Caribbean Sea. Tributaries include the Guaire River, t ...

and Misoa River, state of Miranda. (Oramas 1918a, only a few patronyms.) *Chapacuare - once spoken in the Pascua valley, state of Guárico. (Unattested.) *Tarma - once spoken near the modern city of

Maracay ) , image_skyline = , image_caption =Top:Maracay Municipal Garden and Las Delicias area, Second: Sindoni Tower, Los Tamarindo residential area and overview to Maracay, Third:Maestranza Cesar Giron Bullring Stadium, Girardot Square and Maraca ...

, state of Aragua. (Unattested.) *Mariche - once spoken in the

Baruta Baruta (pop. 317,288) is a municipality within the Metropolitan District of Caracas in Venezuela. Geography Baruta is located geographically in the South-East section of the city. Its western limit is the '' Los Chaguaramos'' neighborhood ( ...

valley, state of Miranda. (Unattested.) *Guayqueri - extinct language once spoken on the Paoviejo River, state of Cojedes. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, pp. 67-68, only one phrase.) *Tomuza - once spoken between the Chico River and Piritú River, states of Miranda and Anzoátegui. (Unattested.) *Haerena / Guarena - once spoken between the

Guarenas River Guarenas is a city in Miranda (state), Miranda, Venezuela. It was established in 1621 as ''Nuestra Señora de Copacabana de los Guarenas''. It is part of the Guarenas-Guatire conurbation On February 27, 1989, a morning protest in this city over ...

and

Guatire River Guatire is a city in Miranda, Venezuela. In 2006, its population has been estimated at 200,417. Today, Guatire has virtually merged with its neighbour, Guarenas forming the Guarenas-Guatire conurbation. Located in Miranda State, and becoming ...

, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.) *Piritú - once spoken around the modern city of

Puerto Píritu Puerto Píritu is a Venezuelan city located in the north-central coast of Anzoátegui State, with a population more than 11,000. It is the capital of the Fernando de Peñalver Municipality, and located 46 km from the centre of Barcelona, th ...

, state of Anzoátegui. (Unattested.) *Tagare - once spoken on the coast of the

Gulf of Cariaco The Cariaco Basin lies off the north central coast of Venezuela and forms the Gulf of Cariaco. It is bounded on the east by Margarita Island, Cubagua Island, and the Araya Peninsula; on the north by Tortuga Island and the Tortuga Banks; on the ...

, state of Sucre. (Unattested.) *Pariagoto / Guayuno - extinct language once spoken on the

Paria Peninsula The Paria Peninsula () is a large peninsula on the Caribbean Sea, in the state of Sucre in northern Venezuela. Geography Separating the Caribbean Sea from the Gulf of Paria, the peninsula is part of the mountain range, in the Venezuelan ...

in the state of Sucre. *Chamaygua - once spoken in the state of Sucre by the neighbors of the Cumanagota tribe. (Unattested.) ;Yao group *Yao / Anacaioury - language once spoken by two tribes: one on the western part of the island of Trinidad; the other in French Guiana on the Ivaricopo River and Cau River. ;Shebayi group *Shebayi / Supaye - extinct language once spoken in the Guianas; exact location is unknown. ;Motilon group *Yupe / Motilon - spoken by many tribes in the

Sierra de Perijá Sierra (Spanish for "mountain range" and "saw", from Latin '' serra'') may refer to the following: Places Mountains and mountain ranges * Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico * Sierra de las Nieves, a mountain range i ...

, state of Zulia, Venezuela, and in the department of Magdalena, Colombia. Dialects: **Chague / Apon - spoken on the

Apon River ''Irvingia gabonensis'' is a species of African trees in the genus ''Irvingia'', sometimes known by the common names wild mango, African mango, or bush mango. They bear edible mango-like fruits, and are especially valued for their fat- and protei ...

, Zulia. **Iroca - spoken on the Casacará River, Magdalena. *Macoa - spoken on the Yasa River and

, Zulia. *Manastara - spoken on the

Becerril River Becerril or Becerril de Campos is a town and municipality of the Colombian departments of Colombia, Department of Department of Cesar, Cesar. Geography The municipality of Becerril borders to the east with the country of Venezuela where the Se ...

, Zulia. *Maraca - spoken by a tribe at the source of the Machigue River and on the Maraca River, Magdalena. *Parirí - spoken to the south of the

. *Shapáru / Chaparro - spoken by the western neighbors of the Parirí tribe, Zulia. *Uasamo - spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Shapáru tribe. (Unattested.) *Susa - spoken in the central part of the

, Magdalena. (Unattested.) *Manaure - spoken on the left bank of the lower course of the La Paz River, Magdalena. (Unattested.) *Tucushmo - spoken by the northern neighbors of the Iroca tribe, Magdalena. (Unattested.) *Socorpa - spoken in the same area by the northern neighbors of the Maracá tribe. (Unattested.) *Curumaní - spoken south of the Tucui River, Magdalena. (Unattested.) *Socomba - spoken between the sources of the

Maracá River Maracá River is a river of Amapá state in Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both South America and Latin America. At and with over 217 million people, ...

and Tucui River, formerly also on the

Buenavista River Buenavista may refer to: Colombia *Buenavista, Boyacá, a municipality in the department of Boyacá * Buenavista, Córdoba, a municipality in the department of Córdoba * Buenavista, Sucre, a municipality in the department of Sucre *Buenavista, ...

, Magdalena. (Unattested.) *Tucuco - spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Shiquimu - spoken by the southwestern neighbors of the Shaparu tribe, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Irapa - spoken by the eastern neighbors of the Shiguimu tribe. (Unattested.) *Pshicacuo - spoken by the western neighbors of the Tucuco tribe. (Unattested.) *Mishorca - spoken at the sources of the Tucuco River by the neighbors of the Pariri tribe. (Unattested.) *Yapreria / Sabril - spoken at the sources of the

Palmar River The Palmar River ( es, Rio El Palmar) is a river of Venezuela. It drains into Lake Maracaibo. The Palmar River rises in the Serranía del Perijá. In its lower reaches it flows through an area of the Catatumbo moist forests ecoregion. It then flo ...

, Zulia. (Anonymous Madrid h.) *Coyaima / Tupe - extinct language once spoken on the

César River The Cesar River ( es, Río Cesar) is a river in northern Colombia which is a part of the Magdalena Basin. It flows through the Cesar-Ranchería Basin and separates the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta from the mountain ranges of the Serranía del Pe ...

, Magdalena. (Castro Trespalacios 1946, only a few patronyms.) *Burede - once spoken at the sources of the

Socuy River Socuy River is a river of northern Venezuela. It flows into the Caribbean Sea. See also *List of rivers of Venezuela References

*Rand McNally, The New International Atlas, 1993. Rivers of Venezuela {{Venezuela-river-stub ...

, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Pemeno - once spoken at the mouth of the

Escalante River The Escalante River is a tributary of the Colorado River. It is formed by the confluence of Upper Valley and Birch Creeks near the town of Escalante in south-central Utah, and from there flows southeast for approximately before joining Lake P ...

, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Bubure / Bobure - once spoken in the state of Zulia around the modern cities of Bobures and Gibraltar. (Unattested.) *Quenagua - extinct language once spoken in Espiritu Santo Valley in the state of Zulia. (Unattested.) *Umaquena - once spoken on the Umaquena River, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Sunesua - once spoken by the southern neighbors of the Quenaga tribe in the Espiritu Santo Valley, Zulia. (Unattested.) *Lobatera - once spoken around the modern city of Lobatera, state of Táchira. (Unattested.) *Táchira - once spoken on the

Táchira River The Táchira River is a river located in Táchira and it divides the border that exists between Venezuela and Colombia in that western state. The Simón Bolívar International Bridge across the Táchira River connects the city of San Antonio de ...

, state of Táchira. (Unattested.) *Tapano - once spoken in the state of Mérida between

Lake Onia A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the ocean, although, like the much larger ...

and

Lake Motilon A lake is an area filled with water, localized in a Depression (geology), basin, surrounded by land, and distinct from any river or other outlet that serves to feed or drain the lake. Lakes lie on land and are not part of the World Ocean, oce ...

. (Unattested.) *Miyuse - once spoken in the state of Mérida on the Mucujepe River and Tucani River. (Unattested.) ;Pijao group *Pijao / Pinao - once spoken on the

Luisa River Luisa (Italian and Spanish), Luísa (Portuguese) or Louise ( French) is a feminine given name; it is the feminine form of the given name Louis (Luis), the French form of the Frankish Chlodowig (German Ludwig), from the Germanic elements ''hlod' ...

, Otaima River, Tuamo River, Tetuán River,

Aipe River Aipe is a town and municipality in the Huila Department, Colombia. It is located on the west bank of the Magdalena River in the Cordillera Central (Colombia), Central Ranges of the Colombian Andes at altitudes between . Aipe borders Natagaima, Atac ...

, and

Magdalena River The Magdalena River ( es, Río Magdalena, ; less commonly ) is the main river of Colombia, flowing northward about through the western half of the country. It takes its name from the biblical figure Mary Magdalene. It is navigable through much of ...

, now in the villages of Ortega,

Coyaima Coyaima is a town and municipality in the Tolima Department, Tolima department of Colombia. The population of the municipality was 27,733 as of the 2005 census. Municipalities of Tolima Department {{Tolima-geo-stub ...

, and

Natagaima Natagaima () is a town and municipality in the Tolima department of Colombia, on the shore of the Magdalena River, at above sea level. The population of the municipality was 21,324 as of the 1993 census, and its average temperature is . Nataga ...

, department of Tolima, Colombia. *Pantagora / Palenque - once spoken between the Guarinó River and San Bartolomé River, department of Calcias, Colombia. (Unattested.) *Colima - extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the

and on the

and

Pacho River Pacho is a municipality and town of Colombia in the department of Cundinamarca. Pacho is part of the Rionegro Province and the urban centre is situated at a distance of from the capital Bogotá at an altitude of , while the altitude ranges fr ...

, Cundinamarca department. *Muzo - once spoken at the sources of the

Carare River Carare River is a river of northern Colombia. It flows into the Caribbean Sea. See also *List of rivers of Colombia Atlantic Ocean Amazon River Basin * Amazon River ** Guainía River or Negro River *** Vaupés River or Uaupés River **** ...

and in the Paima Valley, department of Cundinamarca. (only a few words.) *Nauta - once spoken by the northern neighbors of the Muzo tribe. (Unattested.) *Panche - extinct language once spoken on the Gualí River,

Mariquita River Mariquita may refer to: * Mariquita, Tolima, a municipality in the Tolima department of Colombia ** Mariquita Airport, an airport serving Mariquita * Mariquita Pérez, a 1938 Spanish doll designed by Leonor Coello de Portugal People * Mariquita ( ...

, Guarinó River, Coello River,

Villeta River Villeta is a city of Paraguay in the Central Department, on the banks of Paraguay River. It is an important industrial center and port. Toponymy The city was founded on March 5, 1714, by Juan Gregorio Bazán de Pedraza, with the original name ...

, Seco River,

, and Fusagasuga River, Cundinamarca. *Agatá - once spoken in the department of Cundinamarca on the

, east of the Chibcha tribe. (Unattested.) *Amani - spoken by the western neighbors of the Pantagora tribe in the department of Caldas. (Unattested.) *Neiva - once spoken around the modern city of

Neiva Neiva () is the capital of the Department of Huila. It is located in the valley of the Magdalena River in south central Colombia with a population of about 357,392 inhabitants. It is one of the most important cities in southern Colombia, mainly ...

in the department of Huila. (Unattested.) *Manipo - once spoken at the mouth of the La Plata River in the same area. (Unattested.) *Ajie - unknown language of an extinct tribe that once lived in the territory of Meta at the sources of the Tagua River and Losada River. (Unattested.) ;Opone group *Opone - extinct language once spoken on the

Opone River Opone ( grc, Οπώνη) was an ancient proto-Somali city situated in the Horn of Africa. It is primarily known for its trade with the Ancient Egyptians, Ancient Rome, Romans, Greeks, Persian Empire, Persians, and the states of History of India, a ...

, department of Santander, Colombia. *Carare - spoken by a few individuals on the

in the department of Santander. *Yariguí - once spoken on the

Sogamoso River Sogamoso River () is a river of northern Colombia. It flows into the Magdalena River and on to the Caribbean Sea. The Sogamoso Dam on the river near Bucaramanga was completed in 2014. See also * List of rivers of Colombia References Furthe ...

and in

Barranca Bermeja Barranca (Spanish for "canyon" or "ravine"), may refer to: Geography Argentina * Barranca Yaco, Viceroyalty of the Río de la Plata, Argentina Chile * Barrancas, Pichilemu, a village in Pichilemu Colombia * Barrancas, La Guajira, town and ...

in the same department. (Unattested.) *Hacaritama - once spoken around present-day Hacaritama city in the department of Santander. *Xiriguana - extinct language of a tribe once living in the department of Santander in the Cordillera de Lebaja. (Unattested.) *Carate - once spoken around the modern city of Ocaña, department of Norte de Santander. (Unattested.) *Corbago - once spoken in the department of Magdalena in the

Sierra de Mene Sierra (Spanish for "mountain range" and "saw", from Latin '' serra'') may refer to the following: Places Mountains and mountain ranges * Sierra de Juárez, a mountain range in Baja California, Mexico * Sierra de las Nieves, a mountain range i ...

. (Unattested.) *Guane - once spoken in the department of Santander at the sources of the

Tarare River Tarare is a Communes of France, commune in the Rhône (department), Rhône Departments of France, department in eastern France. It lies on the Turdine river, 28 miles west-northwest of Lyon by rail. History The city was founded at the beginning ...

. (Gumilla 1745, pt. 2, p. 40, only two words.) *Chinato - extinct language once spoken on the upper course of the

Zulia River Zulia River () is a river in Venezuela and Colombia. It is a tributary of the Catatumbo River. The Zulia forms a small part of the international boundary between the two countries. Zulia Zulia State ( es, Estado Zulia, ; Wayuu: ''Mma’ipaka ...

, department of Norte de Santander, around the modern city of

Cúcuta Cúcuta (), officially San José de Cúcuta, is a Colombian municipality, capital of the department of Norte de Santander and nucleus of the Metropolitan Area of Cúcuta. The city is located in the homonymous valley, at the foot of the Eastern ...

. (Unattested.) *Zorca - once spoken in the same department in the San Cristóbal Valley (Unattested.) *Cariquena - once spoken on the Cariquena River in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.) *Capacho - once spoken around the village of

Capacho La Coronilla is a village in the Rocha Department of southeastern Uruguay. Location The village is located on the Atlantic coast on Route 9, about south of Chuy and the border with Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federat ...

in the state of Táchira, Venezuela. (Unattested.) ;Carijona group *Guaque / Huaque / Murcielaga - extinct language once spoken on the Inganos River, Caquetá territory, Colombia. *Carijona / Kalihóna - language now spoken by a few individuals on the middle course of the

Caquetá River Caquetá may refer to: * Caquetá River, a river in Colombia * Caquetá Territory, a former territory of Colombia * Caquetá Department Caquetá Department () is a department of Colombia. Located in the Amazonas region, Caquetá borders wit ...

, territory of Caquetá. *Umáua / Hiánocoto / Máua - language spoken at the sources of the Apoporis River in the territory of Caquetá. *Saha / Tsahatsaha - spoken in the territory of Caquetá between the Cuemani River and Yarí River. (Unattested.) *Riama - spoken between the

Yari River is the term for a traditionally-made Japanese blade (日本刀; nihontō) in the form of a spear, or more specifically, the straight-headed spear. The martial art of wielding the is called . History The forerunner of the is thought to be a ...

, Apoporis River, and

Vaupés River Vaupés River (Uaupés River) is a tributary of the Rio Negro in South America. It rises in the Guaviare Department of Colombia, flowing east through Guaviare and Vaupés Departments. It forms part of the international border between the Vaupés ...

, territories of Caquetá and Vaupés. (Unattested.) *Mahotoyana - spoken in the territory of Vaupés on the

Macaya River Macaya (floruit 1802), was a Kongolese-born Haitian revolutionary military leader. Macaya was one of the first black rebel leaders in Saint-Domingue to ally himself with the French Republican commissioners Sonthonax and Polverel. He helped to ...

. (Unattested.) *Ajajú - unknown language spoken on the Ajaju River, Amazonas territory. (Unattested.) ;Patagon group *Patagon - extinct language once spoken in the villages of Paca, Olipanche, and Bagua and around the modern city of Jaén, department of Cajamarca, Peru. (only a few words.) ;Arara group *Arára / Ajujure / Cabanaé / Opinadkóm - extinct language once spoken on the right bank of the Pacajá Grande River and on the upper course of the

Anapu River The Anapu River is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a tributary of the Pará River, a channel that connects the Amazon and Tocantins rivers to the south of Marajó island. The basin of the Anapu River is in the Xingu–Tocant ...

, Pará, Brazil. *Apingi / Apeiaca / Apiacá de Tocantins - language spoken between the

Tocantins River The Tocantins River ( pt, Rio Tocantins, link=no , , Parkatêjê: ''Pyti'' ɨˈti is a river in Brazil, the central fluvial artery of the country. In the Tupi language, its name means " toucan's beak" (''Tukã'' for "toucan" and ''Ti'' for "beak ...

and Jacunda River, state of Pará. Now spoken by only a few individuals. *Parirí - once spoken at the sources of the

Pacajá River The Pacajá River ( pt, Rio Pacajá) is a river of Pará state in north-central Brazil. It is a tributary of the Pará River, a channel that connects the Amazon and Tocantins rivers to the south of Marajó island. The basin of the Pacajá River i ...

, Jacundá River, and Arataú River, Pará, now perhaps extinct. *Timirem / Antimilene - language of an unknown tribe that live in the virgin forests on the Agua de Saúde River, Pará. (Unattested.) *Yuma - extinct language once spoken on the Jacaré River and Ituxi River, territory of Rondônia. (Unattested.) ;Palmela group *Palmela - extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the São Simão River in the

Guaporé River Guaporé River ( pt, Rio Guaporé, es, Río Iténez) is a river in western Brazil and northeastern Bolivia. It is long; of the river forms the border between Brazil and Bolivia. The Guaporé River is part of the Madeira River basin, which eve ...

, Rondônia. ;Pimenteira group *Pimenteira - Portuguese name of an extinct language the original name of which is unknown, spoken once at the sources of the Sant' Anna River and on Lake Pimenteira and between the

Piauí River Piauí River may refer to: *Piauí River (Piauí) The Piauí River is a river of Piauí state in northeastern Brazil Brazil ( pt, Brasil; ), officially the Federative Republic of Brazil (Portuguese: ), is the largest country in both Sout ...

and Gurgueia River, state of Piauí, Brazil. ;Xingú group *Yaruma / Aruma - spoken at the sources of the

Paranaíba River The Paranaíba River is a Brazilian river whose source lies in the state of Minas Gerais in the Mata da Corda mountains, municipality of Rio Paranaíba, at an altitude of 1,148 meters; on the other face of this mountain chain are the sources of t ...

, state of Mato Grosso, now perhaps extinct. *Bacairí / Bacaery - originally spoken between the Batoví River and Curisevú River, later on the

Paranatinga Paranatinga is a municipality in the state of Mato Grosso in the Central-West Region of Brazil. The municipality contains the Culuene Biological Reserve, created in 1898.Editing Culuene Biological Reserve (section) - Wikipedia As of 2021, peo ...

River, now by only a few families on the Posto Simões Lopes, Mato Grosso. *Nahukwá / Naucuá / Anáukwá - language spoken between the Curisevú River and

Culuene River The Culuene River, or Kuluene River is a 600 km tributary of Xingu River in Mato Grosso, a state in western Brazil. The main economic activities in the region are agriculture and cattle farming. It joins the Xingu from the southeast in the X ...

, with many dialects: **Yanumakapü / Nahukwá proper - northern dialect. **Etagl - spoken in the village of Etagl. **Kuikutl / Guicurú / Cuicuro - spoken on the

in the village of Cuicuro. **Kalapalo / Apalaquiri - spoken in the village of the same name on the

. **Matipú / Matipuhy - spoken in the village of the same name on the right bank of the Curisevú River. **Yamarikuná - spoken on the Curisevú River. **Suva / Tsúva - spoken by a few people on the right bank of the Curisevú River. (Unattested.) **Naravute / Naravóto - spoken on the Curisevú River. **Aipats - spoken on the Curisevú River; now probably extinct. (Unattested.) **Auwáwiti - spoken by a few people on the Curisevú River. (Unattested.)

Vocabulary

Loukotka (1968) lists the following basic vocabulary items for the Cariban (Karaib) languages.

Proto-language

Proto-Cariban phonology according to Gildea (2012): : : Proto-Cariban reconstructions by Gildea (2007, 2012):Gildea, S. (2012). Linguistic studies in the Cariban family. In Campbell, L. & Grondona, V. (eds.), The Indigenous Languages of South America: A Comprehensive Guide. 441-494, Berlin: De Gruyter Mouton. Accessed fro
DiACL
9 February 2020.

References

External links

Etnolinguistica.Org: online resources on native South American languagesKa'lina (Carib) Vocabulary List
(from the World Loanword Database) {{South American languages Language families Indigenous languages of the South American Northeast Languages of Venezuela

Genetic relations

Language contact

Family division

Previous classifications

Meira (2006)

Gildea (2012)

Meira et al. (2015)

Varieties

Vocabulary

Proto-language

See also

Further reading

References

External links