From about 1270 to 1356, the Korean kingdom of

Goryeo Goryeo (; ) was a Korean state founded in 918, during a time of national division called the Later Three Kingdoms period, that unified and ruled the Korea, Korean Peninsula until the establishment of Joseon in 1392. Goryeo achieved what has b ...

was ruled by the

Mongol Empire The Mongol Empire was the List of largest empires, largest contiguous empire in human history, history. Originating in present-day Mongolia in East Asia, the Mongol Empire at its height stretched from the Sea of Japan to parts of Eastern Euro ...

and the

Mongol Mongols are an East Asian ethnic group native to Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia and other 11 autonomous territories), as well as the republics of Buryatia and Kalmykia in Russia. The Mongols are the principal member of the large family of M ...

-led

Yuan dynasty The Yuan dynasty ( ; zh, c=元朝, p=Yuáncháo), officially the Great Yuan (; Mongolian language, Mongolian: , , literally 'Great Yuan State'), was a Mongol-led imperial dynasty of China and a successor state to the Mongol Empire after Div ...

. After the

Mongol invasions of Korea A series of campaigns were conducted between 1231 and 1270 by the Mongol Empire against the Korean kingdom of Goryeo. The last campaign concluded with a peace treaty with Goryeo becoming Korea under Yuan rule, a vassal state of the Yuan dynast ...

and the capitulation of Goryeo in the 13th century, Goryeo became a semi-autonomous

vassal state A vassal state is any state that has a mutual obligation to a superior state or empire, in a status similar to that of a vassal in the feudal system in medieval Europe. Vassal states were common among the empires of the Near East, dating back to ...

and compulsory ally of the Yuan dynasty for about 80 years. It has been referred to as a "son-in-law kingdom in the Mongol Empire." The ruling line of Goryeo, the House of Wang, was permitted to rule Korea as a vassal of the Yuan, which established the Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns (征東行省; literally "Branch Secretariat for Conquering the East") in Korea as an extension of Mongol supervision and political power. Members of the Goryeo royal family were taken to

Khanbaliq Khanbaliq (; , ''Qaɣan balɣasu'') or Dadu of Yuan (; , ''Dayidu'') was the Historical capitals of China, winter capital of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty in what is now Beijing, the capital of China today. It was located at the center of modern ...

, and typically married to spouses from the Yuan imperial clan, the House of Borjigin. As a result, princes who became monarchs of Goryeo during this period were effectively imperial sons in-law (''khuregen''). Yuan overlordship ended in the 1350s when the Yuan dynasty itself started to crumble and King Gongmin of Goryeo began to push the Yuan garrisons back.

History

Mongol invasions

The

launched several invasions against Korea under

from 1231 to 1259. There were six major campaigns: 1231, 1232, 1235, 1238, 1247, 1253; between 1253 and 1258, the Mongols under

Möngke Khan Möngke Khan (also Möngke Khagan or Möngke; 11 January 120911 August 1259) was the fourth khagan of the Mongol Empire, ruling from 1 July 1251 to 11 August 1259. He was the first Khagan from the Toluid line, and made significant reforms to im ...

's general Jalairtai Qorchi launched four devastating invasions in the final successful campaign against Korea, at tremendous cost to civilian lives throughout the Korean Peninsula. The Mongols annexed the northern areas of Korean Peninsula after the invasions and incorporated them into their empire as Ssangseong Prefecture and Dongnyeong Prefecture. In 1216, a host of Khitans fleeing the Mongols crossed into Goryeo. A Mongol detachment chased after them in 1219 and demanded an alliance with the Goryeo against the Khitans. Goryeo agreed and started paying tribute. In 1224, a Mongol envoy was killed under uncertain circumstances, resulting in the cessation of tribute from Goryeo.

Ögedei Khan Ögedei Khan (also Ögedei Khagan or Ogodei; 11 December 1241) was the second Khan (title), khan of the Mongol Empire. The third son of Genghis Khan, he continued the expansion of the empire that his father had begun. Born in 1186 AD, Öged ...

dispatched

Sartaq Sartaq Khan' (or Sartak, Sartach, , ; died 1257) was the son of Batu Khan and his senior wife Boraqchin of Alchi Tatar.Rashid al-Din - Universal History, see: ''Tale of Jochids'' Boraqchin acted as regent Dowager before Sartaq eventually suc ...

against Goryeo and after they ravaged the Korean countryside, Goryeo accepted the placement of overseers known as

darughachi ''Darughachi'' (Mongol form) or ''Basqaq'' (Turkic form) were originally designated officials in the Mongol Empire who were in charge of taxes and administration in a certain province. The singular form of the Mongolian word is ''darugha''. They ...

within its borders. However Ch'oe U (r. 1219–1249) murdered all the darughachi and moved the court from Gaegyeong to the more defensible

Ganghwa Island Ganghwa Island (), also Ganghwado, is an island in Ganghwa County, Incheon, South Korea. It is in the Yellow Sea and in an estuary of the Han River. The island is separated from Gimpo (on the South Korean mainland) by a narrow channel spanned ...

. Ch'oe was willing to send tribute but refused to accept overseers, send royal hostages, or return the court to Gaegyeong. Further campaigns against Goryeo by the Mongols were undertaken by Tanggud (1253–1254), Ebügen (1247–1248), Prince Yekü (1253–1254), and Jalairtai (1254–1255). Goryeo did not militarily confront the Mongols but retreated into the mountain fortresses and islands. In 1241, Goryeo sent Wang Sun (1224–1283), a distant relative of the royal family, as hostage to the Mongols. Devastation from the Mongol raids caused the peasants to defect to the Mongols, who established Ssangseong Prefecture with the aid of local officials. In March 1258, Ch'oe Ui of the Goryeo military regime was assassinated by Kim Chun, ending Ch'oe family dominance and returning the king to power. The new government sent Wang Chŏn as hostage to the Mongol court and

Kublai Khan Kublai Khan (23 September 1215 – 18 February 1294), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Shizu of Yuan and his regnal name Setsen Khan, was the founder and first emperor of the Mongol-led Yuan dynasty of China. He proclaimed the ...

sent him back after 1259 to assume government. Wang Chŏn was enthroned as Wonjong of Goryeo in June 1260. Wonjong's government led by Kim Chun was overthrown by Im Yŏn in 1269. In response, the Mongols backed the rebellion of another group of Goryeo officials in the northwest and created the Dongnyeong Prefecture. Another invasion was prepared in 1270. In an event known as the Sambyeolcho Rebellion, the Three Patrols army (''sambyeolcho'') that served Goryeo's government rebelled against the Im family, overthrew them, and moved the officials back to Gaegyeong from Ganghwa. They fled to Jindo Island and then

Jeju Island Jeju Island (Jeju language, Jeju/) is South Korea's largest island, covering an area of , which is 1.83% of the total area of the country. Alongside outlying islands, it is part of Jeju Province and makes up the majority of the province. The i ...

, where they remained until 1273 when Goryeo forces arrived and defeated them, after which a part of the island was converted to a breeding ground for the Yuan royal herd. Goryeo regained formal control of Dongnyeong in 1290 and Jeju in 1294. However the military command ('' Tumen'') on Jeju ( Tamna Prefectures) remained outside of their jurisdiction. Due to the turmoil caused by the Mongol invasions, a number of Koreans from northern Goryeo entered China either as captives or willingly to seek their fortunes elsewhere, especially in the Yuan capitals of Khanbaliq and

Shangdu Shangdu (; lit. "Upper Capital"; ), known in the West as Xanadu, was the summer capital of the Yuan dynasty under Kublai Khan. Located in what is now Zhenglan Banner, Inner Mongolia, it was designed by Chinese architect Liu Bingzhong and served as ...

. Looser control from the Goryeo government resulted in the departure of farming families for

Liaoyang Liaoyang ( zh, s=辽阳 , t=遼陽 , p=Liáoyáng) is a prefecture-level city of east-central Liaoning province, China, situated on the Taizi River. It is approximately one hour south of Shenyang, the provincial capital, by car. Liaoyang is hom ...

and

Shenyang Shenyang,; ; Mandarin pronunciation: ; formerly known as Fengtian formerly known by its Manchu language, Manchu name Mukden, is a sub-provincial city in China and the list of capitals in China#Province capitals, provincial capital of Liaonin ...

to escape tax and labor services. Possibly as many as 250,000 Koreans lived in China during this period.

Mongol invasions of Japan

Militarily, following the 1259 peace treaty, Mongol ambitions on Japan resulted in two invasions of Japan. In both efforts, the Mongols directed Korean shipbuilding and militarization towards the amphibious assault of the Japanese coasts and pressed a large proportion of Korean naval and infantry forces into the service of Mongol military objectives. Korea supplied 770 fully manned ships and 5,000 soldiers in 1274 and 900 ships and 10,000 soldiers in 1281. Yuan officials and envoys took concubines and wives in Korea while they were stationed in Korea for the invasion of Japan. For a variety of reasons, both invasions failed. During the periods leading up to and during the invasions, Korea was effectively forced to serve as a Mongol military base. The Yuan dynasty paid for ships and soldiers in Goryeo with ''baochao'' paper money.

Status

After 1270, Goryeo became a "fully integrated client kingdom," however official protocol was that of a subordinate principality. David M. Robinson described Goryeo's status as incorporated within the "Great Yuan ''ulus''" but legally distinct from the rest of the empire. Yuan legal codes separated Goryeo from southern China.

Rashid al-Din Hamadani Rashīd al-Dīn Ṭabīb (;‎ 1247–1318; also known as Rashīd al-Dīn Faḍlullāh Hamadānī, ) was a statesman, historian, and physician in Ilkhanate Iran.King Chungnyeol (r. 1274-1308), kings of Goryeo were married to Mongol Borjigid princesses and Goryeo princes were raised and educated at the Yuan court. Gongmin of Goryeo (r. 1351-1374) referred to Goryeo's relationship with the Genghisids as that between vassal and lord. Because of royal marriages with princesses of the Mongol Yuan royal family, Goryeo was considered unique among the states. In 1280, the Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns was created, which lasted until the end of the dynasty. According to Christopher P. Atwood, the Goryeo prince served as the grand councilor (''chengxiang'') but the secretariat managers (''pingzhang'') were appointed by the Yuan court. In 1300, Manager Körgüz proposed abolishing Goryeo court ritual and official hierarchy to better fit its status as a province, but this proposal was rejected. The Mongols established several autonomous commands in Korea that remained outside the control of the Goryeo court. However George Qingzhi Zhao states that the kings of Goryeo retained the autonomy to conduct their own government, including setting up bureaucratic structures, selecting officials, exercising laws and taxes, and using those taxes for Goryeo rather than sending them to the Yuan court. The issue of Goryeo's status was raised again in 1302 and between 1309-1312. In both cases, the proposal to change Goryeo's status was raised by the Hong clan of Hong Ta-gu, who were Goryeo defectors with a long history of conflict with their homeland. The Hong clan was a warlord family that originated in northwestern Goryeo. They made contact with the Mongols in 1218 and defected to the Mongol Empire in 1231. As a former warlord family in Goryeo, the Hong clan specialized in military matters pertaining to Goryeo and made their name by participating in campaigns against their homeland, even stoking conflict on purpose to their benefit. In 1302, they proposed combining Liaoyang and the Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns (Goryeo). Between 1309-1312, the sons of Hong Ta-gu proposed establishing a province in Goryeo instead of having a separate kingdom. This was because Chungseon of Goryeo held both the position of king of Goryeo and ''Wang'' of Shenyang. The ''Wang'' of Shenyang was created in 1260 to rule Goryeo people living in Shenyang. While real power resided in the Hong clan and other families, the symbolic power of the post occupied by the Goryeo royal family provided an alternative center of power among the Goryeo elites. In 1308,

Külüg Khan Külüg Khan (Mongolian language, Mongolian: Хүлэг; Mongolian script: ; ), born Khayishan (Mongolian: Хайсан ; , , meaning "wall"), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Wuzong of Yuan () (August 4, 1281 – January 27, 1311), ...

granted the post to Chungseon. The emperor rejected the proposal to turn Goryeo into a province in 1312. The Hong clan lost most of its power and the brothers are not mentioned again after 1312.Oleg Pirozhenko, 'Political Trends of Hong Bog Won Clan in the Period of Mongol Domination', International Journal of Korean History, Vol. 9 (2005); available at http://ijkh.khistory.org/journal/view.php?number=469; English translation here: http://ijkh.khistory.org/upload/pdf/9-08_oleg%20pirozhenko.pdf Goryeo was lower ranked than Inner Asians who surrendered to the Mongols earlier. When the Mongols placed the Uighurs of the

Kingdom of Qocho Kingdom commonly refers to: * A monarchic state or realm ruled by a king or queen. ** A monarchic chiefdom, represented or governed by a king or queen. * Kingdom (biology), a category in biological taxonomy Kingdom may also refer to: Arts and me ...

over the Koreans at the court the Korean King objected. The Mongol Emperor Kublai Khan said that the Uighur king of Qocho was ranked higher than the Karluk Kara-Khanid ruler, who in turn was ranked higher than the Korean King, who was ranked last among the three because the Uighurs surrendered to the Mongols first, the Karluks surrendered after the Uighurs, and the Koreans surrendered last, and that the Uighurs surrendered peacefully without violently resisting.

Koreans Koreans are an East Asian ethnic group native to the Korean Peninsula. The majority of Koreans live in the two Korean sovereign states of North and South Korea, which are collectively referred to as Korea. As of 2021, an estimated 7.3 m ...

were classified along with Northern Chinese, Khitan, Balhae and Jurchen people as "Han people." Starting in 1271, the Goryeo royal family sent its boys to serve in the

kheshig Kheshig ( Mongolian: ; also Khishig, Keshik, Khishigten; "mugay", "blessed") were the imperial guard and shock troops for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for rulers like Genghis Khan and his wife Börte. Their primary purpose ...

, the Great Khan's imperial bodyguard. Their service lasted from a few years to more than a decade. Their status as part of the kheshig granted them privileges in Goryeo such as legal immunity and the ability to appropriate government assets such as horse fodder or special gowns worn by the guards. In 1350, a Goryeo man named Choe Won who was part of the kheshig made demeaning comments about the Goryeo king Chungjeong. When he was taken in for interrogation by Goryeo authorities, Choe Won asserted his rights as part of the kheshig, refused to kneel, and left the premise. The Goryeo men serving in the kheshig were lumped in together with the northern and southern Chinese, who were sometimes subject to sumptuary restrictions that Goryeo protested. In 1315, an order was given to restrict extravagant clothing among the "northern Chinese, Goryeo men, and southern Chinese" in the kheshig that did not apply to Mongols. In 1345, Yi Jehyeon protested such restrictions when another similar order was given. He emphasized Goryeo's dedicated service to the Genghisids, military service rendered in putting down a Khitan rebellion, immediate recognition of Kublai as the Great Khan, marriage ties to the Genghisid princesses, and their service in the kheshig. The petition also noted that the Goryeo royal family members sat among the

Khongirad The Khongirad (; ; ; ) was one of the major divisions of the Mongol tribes. Their homeland was located in the vicinity of Hulun Lake, Lake Hulun in Inner Mongolia and Khalkha River in Mongolia,M. Sanjdorj, History of the Mongolian People's Repub ...

with the "white nine", which might refer to the white clothing of esteemed people or the mare's milk that they drank.

Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns

The Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns was created in 1280 to mobilize Goryeo resources for the

Mongol invasions of Japan Major military efforts were taken by Kublai Khan of the Yuan dynasty in 1274 and 1281 to conquer the Japanese archipelago after the submission of the Korean kingdom of Goryeo to Vassal state, vassaldom. Ultimately a failure, the invasion attemp ...

. Its offices were located in Gaegyong and was nominally led by the king of Goryeo, who held the dual titles of Imperial Son-in-Law King of Goryeo and Minister of the Left of the Branch Secretariat for Eastern Campaigns. However even though it was largely staffed by Goryeo officials, it was directly subordinate to the Yuan throne, which stationed Chinese, Jurchens, and Mongols in many of the Branch Secretariat's key posts. After the end of the Japanese campaigns, the Branch Secretariat continued to function as an institution of Mongol political control in Goryeo, with King Chungnyeol of Goryeo being appointed as its head by

in 1288 with the expectation that he would contribute to the Mongol Civil War. To gain Kublai's acceptance and prevent further demands, Chungnyeol dressed in Mongol clothing, cut his hair in the Mongol fashion, and agreed to change the names of Goryeo's administrative bureaus to reflect their subordination to the Mongols. Chungnyeol's successor, Chungseon of Goryeo (Kublai's grandson), spent a good deal of his youth in the Yuan capital and saw himself as both the king of Goryeo and as a prince of the empire. He favored adopting the Yuan legal code and implementing reforms to reduce Goryeo's slave population, which elicited opposition from Goryeo elites who feared that such measures would erode Goryeo's sovereignty. They appealed to Kublai's order that Goryeo's "dynastic customs" be retained and argued that aligning with Yuan legal institutions contravened Kublai's will. As a result of such advocacy, fundamental changes to Goryeo's institutions were not made. Chungseon abdicated in 1313 after only five years on the throne and chose to live in the Yuan capital instead because he believed the Yuan court was the true center of power, and power in Goryeo ultimately came from successfully cultivating relations there. In 1343, King Chunghye of Goryeo was dethroned after being arrested by Yuan envoys., . "The Mongols made sure the Korean kings knew who was in charge. Mongol emperors deposed Goryeo kings who failed to serve their interests in 1298, 1313, 1321, 1330, 1332, 1343, and 1351. Some kings were held in detention in Khanbaliq (Beijing) to issue decrees in absentia. Insult was added to injury in 1343 when Mongol envoys arrested the Korean king for initiating reforms detrimental to Mongol interests. They kicked him around, tied him up, and exiled him to China, but he died on the way". Gi Cheol and Hong Bin were appointed to the Branch Secretariat's leadership by the Yuan until Chunghye's son, Wang Hŭn, had an audience with the Yuan emperor

Toghon Temür Toghon Temür (; Mongolian script: ; ; 25 May 1320 – 23 May 1370), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Huizong of Yuan (; ), bestowed by the Northern Yuan, Northern Yuan dynasty, and by his posthumous name as t ...

, and was appointed king as well as head of the Branch Secretariat. The

were Mongolian resident commissioners sent to the Goryeo court. These commissioners, while nominally subordinate to the Goryeo king, were routinely supplied with provisions and were actively involved in the affairs of the Goryeo court., p. 54: "Yüan officials not only used the Koryŏ government, to make demands on the people, but even entered the farm villages themselves to exact tribute. ... The Koryŏ royal house and officials were completely subservient to the Yüan; ... At frequent intervals, the Koryŏ king would leave Kaesŏng and live at the Yüan capital, directing the officials of Koryŏ from there. Thus even the most superficial pretense of independent rule of Koryŏ disappeared." Although the Branch Secretariat was used as a means of Mongol political control over Goryeo, Goryeo rulers also used the Branch Secretariat to advance their own claims on the Goryeo throne. The king's position as head of the Branch Secretariat enhanced his station within Goryeo as well as in the empire. Chungsuk of Goryeo lobbied Mongols, Koreans, and Chinese with ties to the Yuan court for support in regaining his throne from his son and promised them posts in the Branch Secretariat. Chungseon also benefited from three rest stop villages established by Kublai in 1279 between Goryeo and Khanbaliq that became his base for expansion into Liaoyang. He was granted lands on the northern bank of the Yalu and gained significant influence over the region. The Branch Secretariat was responsible for administering imperial exams. Twenty-three Goryeo men passed the Yuan provincial examination at the Branch Secretariat between 1315 and 1353.

Aftermath

The Goryeo dynasty survived under the Yuan until King Gongmin began to push the Mongolian garrisons of the Yuan back in the 1350s, when the Yuan dynasty faced the

Red Turban Rebellion The Red Turban Rebellions () were uprisings against the Yuan dynasty between 1351 and 1368, eventually leading to its collapse. Remnants of the Yuan imperial court retreated northwards and is thereafter known as the Northern Yuan in historiogr ...

China China, officially the People's Republic of China (PRC), is a country in East Asia. With population of China, a population exceeding 1.4 billion, it is the list of countries by population (United Nations), second-most populous country after ...

. Empress Gi and her eunuch Bak Bulhwa attempted a major coup of Northern China and Koryo. Goryeo incurred negative consequences as a result of the eunuch Bak Bulhwa's actions. Empress Gi intervened in Goryeo and her family contended with the Goryeo royal family; her family was purged by Gongmin of Goryeo in 1356. By 1356 Goryeo under King Gongmin regained its lost northern territories such as the Ssangseong Prefecture placed under the Liaoyang province by the Yuan. He also repulsed the Red Turban invasions of Goryeo in 1360. Empress Gi sent the Mongol army to invade Goryeo in 1364, but it failed. However, even after the eventual expulsion of the Yuan dynasty from China in 1368, some Goryeo kings such as U still favored the Yuan, still a formidable power in the Mongolian Plateau as the

Northern Yuan The Northern Yuan was a dynastic state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen people, Jurchen-led ...

, over the

Ming dynasty The Ming dynasty, officially the Great Ming, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 1368 to 1644, following the collapse of the Mongol Empire, Mongol-led Yuan dynasty. The Ming was the last imperial dynasty of ...

established by Han people. This changed with the overthrow of Goryeo in 1392 by Yi Seong-gye, founder of

Joseon Joseon ( ; ; also romanized as ''Chosun''), officially Great Joseon (), was a dynastic kingdom of Korea that existed for 505 years. It was founded by Taejo of Joseon in July 1392 and replaced by the Korean Empire in October 1897. The kingdom w ...

, who cut off relations with the Mongols.

Marriage

Mongol princesses

Once the treaty was concluded and vassaldom established, intermarriage between the Koreans and Mongols was encouraged by the Mongol Empire. After the death of Wonjong in 1274, his successor Chungnyeol of Goryeo received Kublai's daughter Qutlugh-Kelmish as a wife, and his reign began a wholesale Mongolization of the Korean court that continued until the middle of the 14th century. On paper, the official protocol for Korea was that of a subordinate principality, and Korean rulers made lengthy stays at the Mongol Yuan court, both before and after their coronation. In addition, their Mongol wives, and even concubines, exerted great influence over Goryeo politics. For instance, Bayankhutag, Princess Gyeonghwa selected officials for posts within the Goryeo government. The Mongols and the Kingdom of Goryeo became linked via marriage and Goryeo became a ''quda'' ( marriage alliance) state of the Yuan dynasty; monarchs of Goryeo during this period were effectively imperial sons in-law (''khuregen''). The effects of intermarriage on Mongol-Goryeo relations worked both ways: during the reign of Kublai Khan, King Chungnyeol of Goryeo married one of Kublai's daughters; later, a court lady from Korea called the Empress Gi became an empress through her marriage with Ukhaantu Khan, and her son, Biligtü Khan of the

Northern Yuan dynasty The Northern Yuan was a dynastic state ruled by the Mongol Borjigin clan based in the Mongolian Plateau. It existed as a rump state after the collapse of the Yuan dynasty in 1368 and lasted until its conquest by the Jurchen people, Jurchen-led ...

, became a Mongol Khan. Furthermore, the kings of Goryeo held an important status within the Mongol imperial hierarchy, much like other important families of conquered or client states of the Mongol Empire (e.g. the

Uyghurs The Uyghurs,. alternatively spelled Uighurs, Uygurs or Uigurs, are a Turkic peoples, Turkic ethnic group originating from and culturally affiliated with the general region of Central Asia and East Asia. The Uyghurs are recognized as the ti ...

, the

Oirats Oirats (; ) or Oirds ( ; ), formerly known as Eluts and Eleuths ( or ; zh, 厄魯特, ''Èlǔtè'') are the westernmost group of Mongols, whose ancestral home is in the Altai Mountains, Altai region of Siberia, Xinjiang and western Mongolia. ...

, and

). Beginning with the marriage of Chungnyeol and Khudulugh Khaimish, a daughter of Kublai Khan, a total of eight princesses of the Yuan court married into the Goryeo royal family. Chungnyeol (r. 1274–1298, 1298) married Qutlugh Kelmysh, the youngest daughter of Kublai and Chabi. The title given to her by the Yuan dynasty was Princess-Supreme of the State of Qi (Princess ''Jeguk'' in Korean). They had a son named Wang Wŏn who later became King Chungseon (r. 1298, 1309-1313). Although Chungnyeol already had a son with Princess Jeongshi named Wang Cha, because he was not born from a Mongol princess, he was not eligible to become heir to the Goryeo throne and was exiled to a temple in 1279. Chungseon married Botashirin, the Princess-Supreme of the State of Ji (Princess ''Gyeguk''), but the two had a bad relationship. Chungseon refused to have sex with Botashirin and slept with other concubines, impregnating them. Botashirin would not have this so she sent messengers to the Yuan court asking them to pressure Chungseon into doing the deed. The Emperess Dowager of the Yuan sent an envoy to persuade Chungseon into doing his duty but he refused. Chungnyeol, who had abdicated to his son, tried to get the couple to improve their relationship, but when all efforts failed he petitioned to the Yuan court for Botashirin to be remarried to someone else out of fear that one her sexual liaisons would result in offspring. Due to the pre-eminence of the Genghisid royal lineage, he feared that such an offspring would take the Goryeo throne. As a result, the Yuan deposed Chungseon and reinstated Chungnyeol as king in the summer of 1298. Chungseon married another Mongol woman, Yasokjin, but she was not a princess and was simply called "a Mongol woman" by Korean historians. She was posthumously named "virtuous concubine" (Ui). King Chungsuk (r. 1314-1338), the son of Chungseon and Yasokjin, married three Mongol princesses. The first was Irinjinbala, the Senior Princess of the State of Pu Ji (Princess ''Bokguk''). They married in 1316 when Chungsuk was in China and left for Goryeo in the winter. Three years later Irinjinbala died under suspicious circumstances. The Yuan court sent envoys to Goryeo in 1321 to investigate the circumstances of her death. A servant girl and a cook for the princess were arrested. According to the cook, Chungsuk consorted with Consort Deok and Irinjinbala was jealous. Irinjinbala was beaten by Chungsuk on two separate occasions, the first time resulting in bleeding from the nose. Several Goryeo ministers wrote an appeal to the Yuan court charging the cook with making a false accusation. In 1324, the Yuan married Jintong, posthumously the Senior Princess of the State of Cao Ji (Princess ''Jokuk''), to Chungsuk. She died at the age of 18 in 1325 after giving birth during a trip to Dragon Mountain (''Yongsan'') with Chungsuk. Chunsuk married Bayanhudu in 1333. Her lineage is uncertain and the ''

Goryeosa ''Goryeosa'' (), or ''History of Goryeo'', is an extensive historical record of the Goryeo dynasty, compiled by the officials of Goryeo's successor state, Joseon. Its compilation started during the reign of Taejo of Joseon, Taejo (the founding ...

'' simply calls her a "Mongol woman" but since she did have a royal title, she was almost certainly part of the royal family. According to Xiao Qiqing, she was the sister of Jintong. Bayanhudu outlived Chungsuk, who died in 1336. She was raped by Chungsuk's son, Chunghye, and was prevented from escaping to the Yuan court. As a result of this incident as well as initiating reforms detrimental to Mongol interests, Yuan envoys arrested Chunghye in 1343 and exiled him to China but he died on the way. Chunghye (r. 1330–1332, 1339–1343) married a Mongol princess named Irinjinbal, posthumously Princess Dening (Princess ''Deongnyeong'') in 1330. She had two children. One was Wang Hŭn (also known as Basima Duorji) and the other was an unnamed daughter. When Chunghye was deposed in 1344,

ordered for Wang Hŭn (posthumously King ''Chungmok'') to be put on the throne. The boy was only eight years old at the time, so real control over the Goryeo government remained in Irinjinbal's hands. He died four years later. The Yuan court continued to control the succession of Goryeo rulers and ordered Wang Jeo (also known as Misijian Duorzhi), the son of Chunghye and a

concubine Concubinage is an interpersonal relationship, interpersonal and Intimate relationship, sexual relationship between two people in which the couple does not want to, or cannot, enter into a full marriage. Concubinage and marriage are often regarde ...

, to be put on the throne. Wang Jeo (posthumously King ''Chungjeong'') was only 12 years old when he became king. Irinjinbal forced him to abdicate in 1351 and the Yuan ordered Wang Gi, the brother of Chunghye, to assume the throne. Wang Gi (posthumously King ''Gongmin'') reigned from 1351 to 1374 during the time of Yuan collapse. He was the last Goryeo king to marry a Mongol princess. King Gongmin (r. 1351-1374) married Botashirin, the Grand and Senior Princess of the State of Lu (Princess ''Noguk''), at the Yuan court in 1349. Their marriage was described as happy. She was a devout Buddhist who did not bear children in the first nine years of her marriage and so she recommended other women to bear sons for Gongmin. During a palace coup, she guarded Gongmin outside his mother's bedroom while he hid under a blanket. Botashirin became pregnant in 1365 and died in childbirth. After her death, Gongmin stopped attending court for three days and ordered all government officials to wear mourning clothes. He held a lavish state funeral for Botashirin and personally led the officials in a memorial ceremony, specifying that it be accompanied by Mongol music.

Tribute women

Korean women first entered the Mongol Empire as war booty. Later in the 13th century, Kublai and the Mongol elites started demanding women from elite Goryeo families as wives and consorts. Goryeo refused these demands but created an official government bureau in Goryeo for the organization of and flow of tribute women to the Mongol Empire. The Mongols also extracted other tributes such as gold, silver, cloth, grain, ginseng, and falcons from Goryeo. As with all parts of the Mongol Empire, Goryeo provided palace women, eunuchs, Buddhist monks, and other personnel to the Mongols. Yuan envoys regularly visited Goryeo to procure women in the name of the emperor, who distributed them to leading ministers on many occasions. Almost 1,500 Korean women were noted as tribute in Yuan and Goryeo documents but the number was likely greater if including personal maids and servants who accompanied the women and others who were undocumented. One concubine who entered the Yuan court, Empress Gi, was instrumental in the popularization of Korean clothing, food, and lifestyle in the capital through her political command and incorporation of Korean females and eunuchs in the court. It became prestigious to marry Korean women among members of the Yuan elite. A native of Qingyuan named Nasen traveled to Khanbaliq in 1355 and wrote a poem comparing the poor existence of Chinese villagers to the life of luxury a Korean woman experienced in the capital.

Military

Under Mongol rule, the northern defenses of Goryeo were reduced and the standing army was abolished. In their place, Goryeo relied on mobilizing men from the general populace on an ad hoc basis depending on military circumstances, while the Yuan-controlled Ssangseong Prefecture and Yuan forces north of the

Yalu River The Yalu River () or Amnok River () is a river on the border between China and North Korea. Together with the Tumen River to its east, and a small portion of Paektu Mountain, the Yalu forms the border between China and North Korea. Its valle ...

became the true defense of Goryeo's northern border. The Palace Guard (''Sukwigun'') became known less for its martial prowess and more for its numerous profitable posts. By the mid-14th century, the Goryeo king's personal guards were modeled after the Mongol

Kheshig Kheshig ( Mongolian: ; also Khishig, Keshik, Khishigten; "mugay", "blessed") were the imperial guard and shock troops for Mongol royalty in the Mongol Empire, particularly for rulers like Genghis Khan and his wife Börte. Their primary purpose ...

with some prestigious posts given Mongol titles. The Mongol military system known as the '' tumen'', or myriarchy, based on units of 10,000 was introduced to Goryeo. The numerical strength of 10,000 was often nominal in nature and failed to reach that number. They were filled by Goryeo soldiers and led by Goryeo officers, representing a degree of autonomy from the Mongols. However the appointment of officers was effectively controlled by the Mongols throughout the mid-14th century and they reserved the right to call on Goryeo's military forces for their own campaigns. When Chunghye was arrested by Yuan envoys in 1343, two Goryeo military commanders aided the Yuan in delivering the king to the Yuan court. Following the arrest, a number of Goryeo officers raided the homes of several powerful families, but it is uncertain whether this was opportunistic exploitation of the situation or if it was done on the emperor's orders.

Culture

Mongol domination in both political and military life led to the adoption of Mongol cultural customs throughout Northeast Asia. Mongolian style clothing and hairstyles were well received among much of Goryeo's court. The Mongolian diet is also said to have had a deep impact on Korean cuisine. Mongol names, which were bestowed by the Yuan court for contributions rendered to the empire, began appearing in the Chinese and Korean populations. Korean culture such as clothing also became popular among the elites of Khanbaliq during the 13th and early 14th centuries through the import of Korean women. Probably as a result of imperial patronage and its associated prestige, Korean fashions spread into the

Jiangnan Jiangnan is a geographic area in China referring to lands immediately to the south of the lower reaches of the Yangtze River, including the southern part of its delta. The region encompasses the city of Shanghai, the southern part of Jiangsu ...

region, and even some degree of Korean language competence was heard of among the guards. Scholars from Goryeo traveled in China and to Khanbaliq, where they encountered strains of

Neo-Confucian Neo-Confucianism (, often shortened to ''lǐxué'' 理學, literally "School of Principle") is a Morality, moral, Ethics, ethical, and metaphysics, metaphysical Chinese philosophy influenced by Confucianism, which originated with Han Yu (768� ...

thought, which they took with them back to Goryeo. In 1314,

Ayurbarwada Buyantu Khan Buyantu Khan ( Mongolian: Буянт хаан; Mongolian script: ; ), born Ayurbarwada (Mongolian: Аюурбарбад ; ), also known by his temple name as the Emperor Renzong of Yuan (, April 9, 1285 – March 1, 1320), was the fourth emperor ...

donated 17,000 ''juan'' from the former

Southern Song The Song dynasty ( ) was an imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Ten Kingdoms, ending ...

archives to Goryeo. In Khanbaliq and the Jiangnan region, Korean scholars studied

Zhu Xi Zhu Xi ( zh, c=朱熹; ; October 18, 1130April 23, 1200), formerly romanized Chu Hsi, was a Chinese philosopher, historian, politician, poet, and calligrapher of the Southern Song dynasty. As a leading figure in the development of Neo-Confuci ...

and prepared for the Yuan imperial examinations, while Chinese administrators assigned to Goryeo disseminated Neo-Confucian ideology as well.

Economy

Yuan paper currency entered Goryeo's markets as gifts and payments for goods and services rendered. As a result, Yuan inflationary pressure also affected Goryeo through the royal family and the government elite with ties to

. The Goryeo royal family maintained several residences in the Yuan capital where they incurred expenses and took loans from merchants. Sea routes connected Goryeo to Khanbaliq through the port of Zhigu in

Shandong Shandong is a coastal Provinces of China, province in East China. Shandong has played a major role in Chinese history since the beginning of Chinese civilization along the lower reaches of the Yellow River. It has served as a pivotal cultural ...

. In 1295, a Goryeo official sent 14,000 bolts of linen to Shandong, where the goods were transported to via land to Yidu. They were then exchanged for paper currency there for use by the heir apparent of Goryeo in Khanbaliq.

References

Sources

* * . * . * * * * {{Goryeo topics History of Yuan dynasty by region Provinces of the Yuan dynasty Goryeo 13th century in Korea 14th century in Korea Vassal and tributary states of the Mongol Empire Foreign relations of Goryeo