The ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' () is the central religious text of the
Baháʼí Faith
The Baháʼí Faith is a religion founded in the 19th century that teaches the Baháʼí Faith and the unity of religion, essential worth of all religions and Baháʼí Faith and the unity of humanity, the unity of all people. Established by ...
, written by
Baháʼu'lláh
Baháʼu'lláh (, born Ḥusayn-ʻAlí; 12 November 1817 – 29 May 1892) was an Iranian religious leader who founded the Baháʼí Faith. He was born to an aristocratic family in Iran and was exiled due to his adherence to the messianic Báb ...
, the founder of the religion, in 1873. Though it is the main source of
Baháʼí laws and practices, much of the content deals with other matters, like foundational principles of the religion, the establishment of Baháʼí institutions,
mysticism
Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
, ethics, social principles, and prophecies. In
Baháʼí literature
Baháʼí literature includes the books, letters, and recorded public talks of the Baháʼí Faith's founders, the clarifying letters of Shoghi Effendi, the elucidations of the Universal House of Justice, and a variety of commentary and history ...
it is described as "the Mother-Book" of the
Baháʼí teachings
The teachings of the Baháʼí Faith are derived from the writings of Baháʼu'lláh, its founder. A corpus of Baháʼí literature include books and writings of the Báb and Baháʼu'lláh, along with the public talks and writings of ‘Abdu� ...
, and the "Charter of the Future World Civilization".
Baháʼu'lláh had manuscript copies sent to Baháʼís in Iran some years after its writing in 1873, and in 1890–91 (1308
AH, 47
BE) he arranged for its first publication in
Bombay
Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial centre, financial capital and the list of cities i ...
,
India
India, officially the Republic of India, is a country in South Asia. It is the List of countries and dependencies by area, seventh-largest country by area; the List of countries by population (United Nations), most populous country since ...
. Parts of the text were translated into English by
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...
, which, along with a ''Synopsis and Codification,'' were published in 1973 by the
Universal House of Justice
The Universal House of Justice is the nine-member supreme ruling body of the Baháʼí Faith. It was envisioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, as an institution that could legislate on issues not already addressed in the ...
on the centennial anniversary of its writing. The full authoritative English translation, along with clarifying texts from Baháʼu'lláh and detailed explanatory notes from the Universal House of Justice, was first published in 1992.
Etymology
The work was written in Arabic under the Arabic title ' (), but in English it is commonly known by its Persian pronunciation ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' (), and is subtitled with the translation of "the Most Holy Book". The word ''Aqdas'' is a superlative form derived from the
triconsonantal root Q-D-Š
''Q-D-Š'' is a triconsonantal Semitic root meaning " sacred, holy", derived from a concept central to ancient Semitic religion. From a basic verbal meaning "to consecrate, to purify", it could be used as an adjective meaning "holy", or as a ...
, denoting holiness or sanctity in
Semitic languages
The Semitic languages are a branch of the Afroasiatic languages, Afroasiatic language family. They include Arabic,
Amharic, Tigrinya language, Tigrinya, Aramaic, Hebrew language, Hebrew, Maltese language, Maltese, Modern South Arabian language ...
. It is sometimes called "The Aqdas" for short.
History
The Kitáb-i-Aqdas was written by Bahá’u’lláh in
Acre
The acre ( ) is a Unit of measurement, unit of land area used in the Imperial units, British imperial and the United States customary units#Area, United States customary systems. It is traditionally defined as the area of one Chain (unit), ch ...
at about the midpoint of his ministry around 1873. Bahá'ís regard it as divinely revealed, and it forms a central part of the scriptures of the Baha'i Faith. It was written as a response to inquiries from the believers about the laws of God for the new religion and guidance on how to arrange their affairs.
Bahá’u’lláh later wrote that after the initial composition in the
House of ‘Abbúd, he waited for some time before sending it to the believers in Iran.
The ''Questions and Answers'' portion, which is included in most publications of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas is a compilation of answers written by Bahá’u’lláh to questions put to him by various believers. It was organized by
Zaynu’l-Muqarrabín, a respected transcriber of Bahá’u’lláh’s writings and one of the nineteen
Apostles of Bahá’u’lláh.
At the instruction of Bahá’u’lláh, the Kitáb-i-Aqdas was first published in
Bombay
Mumbai ( ; ), also known as Bombay ( ; its official name until 1995), is the capital city of the Indian States and union territories of India, state of Maharashtra. Mumbai is the financial centre, financial capital and the list of cities i ...
in 1891.
A copy of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, dated January 1887, in the handwriting of Zaynu'l-Muqarrabín, is housed at the
British Library
The British Library is the national library of the United Kingdom. Based in London, it is one of the largest libraries in the world, with an estimated collection of between 170 and 200 million items from multiple countries. As a legal deposit li ...
. The library's description states, "His copies are highly regarded for their accuracy."
Overview
Rather than a narrative, the book is written as a series of short teachings or principles. A summary lends itself to a bullet-point list of the various ideas shared throughout the text. Main themes cover the appointment of Baháʼu'lláh's successor, who remains unnamed in the text; the layout of the future Baháʼí administration, including the mention of the
Universal House of Justice
The Universal House of Justice is the nine-member supreme ruling body of the Baháʼí Faith. It was envisioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, as an institution that could legislate on issues not already addressed in the ...
and allusions to what would later be known as the
Guardian; certain laws, particularly around prayer, fasting, marriage, divorce, and inheritance; admonitions toward certain individuals; and a variety of specific laws, ordinances, and prohibitions, ranging from tithes, to the Baháʼí calendar, to prohibitions on opium, slave trading, and gossip.
Besides the main themes above, the ''Synopsis and Codification'' lists the last of six themes as "Miscellaneous Subjects" and lists 33 topics:
#The transcendent character of the Bahá'í Revelation
#The exalted station of the Author of the Faith
#The supreme importance of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas, "The Most Holy Book"
#The doctrine of the "Most Great Infallibility"
#The twin duties of recognition of the Manifestation and observance of His Laws, and their inseparability
#The end of all learning is the recognition of Him Who is the Object of all knowledge
#The blessedness of those who have recognized the fundamental verity "He shall not be asked of His doings"
#The revolutionizing effect of the "Most Great Order"
#The selection of a single language and the adoption of a common script for all on earth to use: one of two signs of the maturity of the human race
#Prophecies of the Báb regarding "He Whom God will make manifest"
#Prediction relating to opposition to the Faith
#Eulogy of the king who will profess the Faith and arise to serve it
#The instability of human affairs
#The meaning of true liberty
#The merit of all deeds is dependent upon God's acceptance
#The importance of love for God as the motive of obedience to His Laws
#The importance of utilizing material means
#Eulogy of the learned among the people of Bahá
#Assurance of forgiveness to Mírzá Yahyá should he repent
#Apostrophe addressed to Tihrán
#Apostrophe addressed to Constantinople and its people
#Apostrophe addressed to the "banks of the Rhine"
#Condemnation of those who lay false claim to esoteric knowledge
#Condemnation of those who allow pride in their learning to debar them from God
#Prophecies relating to Khurásán
#Prophecies relating to Kirmán
#Allusion to
Shaykh Ahmad-i-Ahsá'í
#Allusion to the Sifter of Wheat
#Condemnation of Hájí Muhammad-Karím Khán
#Condemnation of Shaykh Muhammad-Hasan
#Allusion to
Napoleon III
Napoleon III (Charles-Louis Napoléon Bonaparte; 20 April 18089 January 1873) was President of France from 1848 to 1852 and then Emperor of the French from 1852 until his deposition in 1870. He was the first president, second emperor, and last ...
#Allusion to Siyyid Muhammad-i-Isfahání
#Assurance of aid to all those who arise to serve the Faith
Laws
While it is the core text on laws of the religion, it is not the exclusive source.
Baháʼu'lláh stated that the observance of the laws that he prescribed should be subject to "tact and wisdom", and that they do not cause "disturbance and dissension."
He left for the progressive application of the laws to be decided by the Universal House of Justice; for example certain Baháʼí laws are currently only applicable to Iranian Baháʼís such as the limit to the period of engagement, while any Baháʼí may practice the laws if they so decide.
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...
also stated that certain other laws, such as criminal laws, that are dependent upon the existence of a predominantly Baháʼí society would only be applicable in a possible future Baháʼí society.
He also stated that if the laws were in conflict with the civil law of the country where a Baháʼí lives the laws could not be practiced.
Baha'is believe the Aqdas supersedes and succeeds previous revelations such as the
Quran
The Quran, also Romanization, romanized Qur'an or Koran, is the central religious text of Islam, believed by Muslims to be a Waḥy, revelation directly from God in Islam, God (''Allah, Allāh''). It is organized in 114 chapters (, ) which ...
and the
Bible
The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...
.
Form and style
The text of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas consists of several hundred verses, which have been grouped in 190 numbered paragraphs in the English translation most of which are just a few sentences.
The style combines elements of both
poetry
Poetry (from the Greek language, Greek word ''poiesis'', "making") is a form of literature, literary art that uses aesthetics, aesthetic and often rhythmic qualities of language to evoke meaning (linguistics), meanings in addition to, or in ...
(''shi'r'') and
rhymed prose (''saj'') and the text contains instances of
literary devices like
alliteration
Alliteration is the repetition of syllable-initial consonant sounds between nearby words, or of syllable-initial vowels if the syllables in question do not start with a consonant. It is often used as a literary device. A common example is " Pe ...
,
assonance
Assonance is the repetition of identical or similar phonemes in words or syllables that occur close together, either in terms of their vowel phonemes (e.g., ''lean green meat'') or their consonant phonemes (e.g., ''Kip keeps capes ''). However, in ...
,
repetition,
onomatopoeia
Onomatopoeia (or rarely echoism) is a type of word, or the process of creating a word, that phonetics, phonetically imitates, resembles, or suggests the sound that it describes. Common onomatopoeias in English include animal noises such as Oin ...
,
juxtaposition
Juxtaposition is an act or instance of placing two opposing elements close together or side by side. This is often done in order to Comparison, compare/contrast the two, to show similarities or differences, etc.
Speech
Juxtaposition in literary ...
and
antithesis
Antithesis (: antitheses; Greek for "setting opposite", from "against" and "placing") is used in writing or speech either as a proposition that contrasts with or reverses some previously mentioned proposition, or when two opposites are introd ...
,
metaphor
A metaphor is a figure of speech that, for rhetorical effect, directly refers to one thing by mentioning another. It may provide, or obscure, clarity or identify hidden similarities between two different ideas. Metaphors are usually meant to cr ...
s,
alternation of person and
personification
Personification is the representation of a thing or abstraction as a person, often as an embodiment or incarnation. In the arts, many things are commonly personified, including: places, especially cities, National personification, countries, an ...
.
It is written to the individual reader, as there are no
clergy
Clergy are formal leaders within established religions. Their roles and functions vary in different religious traditions, but usually involve presiding over specific rituals and teaching their religion's doctrines and practices. Some of the ter ...
in the religion. The text also moves between statements said to be plain and statements suggesting the key to understanding the book is to look at the text for clues to itself.
Translations
The Kitáb-i-Aqdas was completed by Baháʼu'lláh in 1873. It was published in the Arabic for circulation among Baháʼís speaking the language circa 1890. A Russian translation was undertaken by
Alexander Tumansky in 1899 and was his most important contribution to Baháʼí studies. Around 1900 an informal English translation was made by Baháʼí Anton Haddad, which circulated among the early American Baháʼí community in a typewritten form. In 1961, an English scholar of Arabic, Dr. Earl E. Elder, and
William McElwee Miller, published an English translation, "Al-Kitab Al-Aqdas", through the
Royal Asiatic Society, however its translation of the notes section was problematic and overall lacked "poetic sensibility, and skill in Arabic translation". Miller only ever used it to further his polemical agenda.
In 1973 a "Synopsis and Codification" of the book was published in English by the
Universal House of Justice
The Universal House of Justice is the nine-member supreme ruling body of the Baháʼí Faith. It was envisioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, as an institution that could legislate on issues not already addressed in the ...
, with 21 passages of the Aqdas that had already been translated into English by
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...
with additional terse lists of laws and ordinances contained in the book outside of any contextual prose. Finally, in 1992, a full and authorized Baháʼí translation in English was published.
This version is used as the basis of translation into many other languages highlighting the practice of an indirect translation and how the purpose of the translation affects the act of translation. The Baháʼí Library Online provides a side-by-side comparison of the authorized translation with earlier translations by Anton Haddad and Earl Elder.
Content
The ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' is supplemented by the
*"Questions and Answers"', which consists of 107 questions submitted to Baháʼu'lláh by
Zaynu'l-Muqarrabin concerning the application of the laws and Baháʼu'lláh's replies to those questions
*"Some Texts Revealed by Baháʼu'lláh"
*''Synopsis and Codification of the Laws and Ordinances'', prepared by
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...
*explanatory notes prepared by the
Universal House of Justice
The Universal House of Justice is the nine-member supreme ruling body of the Baháʼí Faith. It was envisioned by Baháʼu'lláh, the founder of the Baháʼí Faith, as an institution that could legislate on issues not already addressed in the ...
The book was divided into six main themes in the ''Synopsis and Codification'' by Shoghi Effendi:
#The appointment of
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 un ...
as the successor of Baháʼu'lláh
#Anticipation of the Institution of the
Guardianship
#The Institution of the Universal House of Justice
#Laws, Ordinances and exhortations
#Specific admonitions, reproofs and warnings
#Miscellaneous subjects
Further, the laws were divided into four categories:
:A. Prayer
:B. Fasting
:C. Laws of personal status
:D. Miscellaneous laws, ordinances and exhortations
Themes
A scholarly review finds the Aqdas has themes of laws of worship, societal relations and administrative organization, or governance, of the religion.
Through the authority vested in
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 un ...
in the Aqdas there is material on
internationalism related to the law in works like ''
The Secret of Divine Civilization'' and through his extended authority to
Shoghi Effendi
Shoghí Effendi (; ;1896 or 1897 – 4 November 1957) was Guardian of the Baháʼí Faith from 1922 until his death in 1957. As the grandson and successor of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá, he was charged with guiding the development of the Baháʼí Faith, in ...
works like his ''
World Order of Baháʼu'lláh'' further elaborates on the theme of internationalism. This stands in some distinction from other scriptures by not using triumphal tones as the voice of God is given to be viewed but rather one of progressive development, social context, and outright delay in application until another day. It insists that divine law is applicable only in situations with requisite conditions, where it is likely to have certain social effects. The goal of application of the law and its methods are not to cause disturbance and dissension and requires an appreciation for context and intention. Additionally one is to eschew emphasis in the development of
textualist and
intentionalist arguments about the law though some of this is visible in scholarship on the Aqdas. Such methods of application of law in a religious context are, in the opinion of Roshan Danish, common in Islam and Judaism.
The Aqdas is understood by Baháʼís to be a factor in the process of ongoing developments in world order. This can be seen comparing the Baháʼí approach to history and the future to that of the theory of the
Clash of Civilizations
The "Clash of Civilizations" is a thesis that people's cultural and religious identities will be the primary source of conflict in the post–Cold War world. The American political scientist Samuel P. Huntington argued that future wars would be ...
on the one hand and the development of a
posthegemony system on the other (compared with work of Robert Cox, for example, in ''Approaches to World Order'', (Robert Cox & Timonthy Sinclair eds, Cambridge University Press, 1996).)
Certain possible sources of law are specifically abrogated: laws of the Bábí religion, notably in the ''
Persian Bayán'', oral traditions (linked with
pilgrim notes, and natural law, (that is to say God's sovereign will through revelation is the independent authority.)
Divine revelation's law-making is both unconditioned in terms of the divine right to choose, and conditioned in the sense of the progress of history from one revelation to the next.
Marriage and divorce
Baha'u'llah's statements about marriage in the ''Kitáb-i-Aqdas'' are brief. Marriage is highly recommended but is stated to not be obligatory. Baháʼu'lláh states that the maximum number of wives is two, but also states that having only one wife would add more tranquility to both partners.
These statements were later interpreted by
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá
ʻAbdu'l-Bahá (; Persian: , ;, 23 May 1844 – 28 November 1921), born ʻAbbás (, ), was the eldest son of Baháʼu'lláh, founder of the Bahá’í Faith, who designated him to be his successor and head of the Baháʼí Faith from 1892 un ...
that having a second wife is conditional upon treating both wives with justice and equality and was not possible in practice, thus establishing monogamy.
That
Baháʼu'lláh
Baháʼu'lláh (, born Ḥusayn-ʻAlí; 12 November 1817 – 29 May 1892) was an Iranian religious leader who founded the Baháʼí Faith. He was born to an aristocratic family in Iran and was exiled due to his adherence to the messianic Báb ...
had three wives,
while his religion teaches monogamy, has been the subject of criticism. The writing of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas and Baháʼí teachings on gender equality and monogamy post-date Baháʼu'lláh's marriages and are understood to be evolutionary in nature, slowly leading Baháʼís away from what had been a deeply rooted cultural practice.
Administration
The institutional status of the authority of ʻAbdu'l-Bahá and a House of Justice are specifically delineated.
On the basis of the authority granted ʻAbdu'l-Bahá he extended forms of the authority vested in him to the Guardianship, whose sole member was Shoghi Effendi, and the Universal, or International, House of Justice through his
Will and Testament
A will and testament is a legal document that expresses a person's (testator) wishes as to how their property (estate (law), estate) is to be distributed after their death and as to which person (executor) is to manage the property until its fi ...
. This was confirmed and amplified in other texts, notably the
Kitáb-i-'Ahd. The Universal House of Justice is specifically empowered to write and rescind any laws it is felt necessary aside from those of the text of scripture and actual application of the laws of the Aqdas among Baháʼís are dependent on the choice of the Universal House of Justice.
See also
*
Kitáb-i-Íqán (The Book of Certitude)
*
Tablets of Baháʼu'lláh Revealed After the Kitáb-i-Aqdas
*
Kitáb-i-ʻAhd (The Will and Testament of Baháʼu'lláh)
*
The Hidden Words
*
Baháʼí literature
Baháʼí literature includes the books, letters, and recorded public talks of the Baháʼí Faith's founders, the clarifying letters of Shoghi Effendi, the elucidations of the Universal House of Justice, and a variety of commentary and history ...
*
Baháʼí prophecies
Notes
References
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
*
Further reading
The Kitab-i-Aqdas: its place in Baha'i literature Published in Baháʼí World, 1992–1993. pp. 105–117.
* Danesh, Roshan (2015).
Some Reflections on the Structure of the Kitáb-i-Aqdas' in Journal of Baháʼí Studies, 25:3, pp. 81–94.
* Ghaemmaghami, Omid, Vafai, Shahin (forthcoming).
Exploring the Kitáb-i-Aqdas: The Laws and Teachings of the Bahá’í Faith'. I.B. Tauris. ISBN 0755606256.
*
*
External links
Kitáb-i-Aqdas Research ToolsTimeline and related material on Baháʼí Library Online
{{DEFAULTSORT:Kitab-I-Aqdas
Works by Baháʼu'lláh
1873 books
Superlatives in religion
1873 in religion