Kejawèn
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''Kejawèn'' () or Javanism, also called Kebatinan, ''Agama Jawa'', and '' Kepercayaan'', is a
Java Java is one of the Greater Sunda Islands in Indonesia. It is bordered by the Indian Ocean to the south and the Java Sea (a part of Pacific Ocean) to the north. With a population of 156.9 million people (including Madura) in mid 2024, proje ...
nese cultural tradition, consisting of an amalgam of
animistic Animism (from meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, Rock (geology), rocks, rivers, Weather, ...
,
Buddhist Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
,
Islamic Islam is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic monotheistic religion based on the Quran, and the teachings of Muhammad. Adherents of Islam are called Muslims, who are estimated to number Islam by country, 2 billion worldwide and are the world ...
and
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
aspects. It is rooted in Javanese history and religiosity, syncretizing aspects of different religions and traditions.


Definitions

The term ''kebatinan'' is being used interchangeably with ''kejawèn'', ''Agama Jawa'' and '' Kepercayaan'', although they are not exactly the same: * Kebatinan: "the science of the inner", "inwardness", derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden". * Kejawèn: "Javanism", the culture and religious beliefs and practices of the
Javanese people The Javanese ( , ; ) are an Austronesian peoples, Austronesian ethnic group native to the central and eastern part of the Indonesian island of Java. With more than 100 million people, Javanese people are the largest ethnic group in both Indo ...
of
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
and
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
. It is "not a religious category, but refers to an ethic and a style of life that is inspired by Javanist thinking". * Agama Jawa: "The Javanese religion" * Kepercayaan: "belief", "faith", full term: ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'',Indonesia: East Java native religion called Aliran Kepercayaan or Kepercayaan Kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa, aka ''Pangistu''; its status and treatment of its members by Muslim fundamentalists (2003-June 2004)
/ref> "Believer in One Mighty God". "Kepercayaan" is an official cover term for various forms of mysticism in Indonesia. According to Caldarola, it "is not an apt characterization of what the mystical groups have in common". It includes ''kebatinan'', ''kejiwan'' and ''kerohanian''. ''Kebatinan'' is the inward cultivation of inner peace, rooted in pre-Islamic traditions, whereas ''kejawèn'' is outward and community-oriented, manifesting in rituals and practices.


History

Java has been a melting pot of religions and cultures, which has created a broad range of religious beliefs, including animism, spirit cults, and cosmology.


Hinduism and Buddhism

Indian influences came firstly in the form of
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
, which reached the Indonesian Archipelago as early as the first century. By the fourth century, the kingdom of Kutai in
East Kalimantan East Kalimantan (Indonesian language, Indonesian: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia. Its territory comprises the eastern portion of Borneo/Kalimantan. It had a population of about 3.03 million at the 2010 census (within the cu ...
,
Tarumanagara Tarumanagara or Taruma Kingdom or just Taruma was an early Sundanese Indianised kingdom, located in western Java, whose 5th-century ruler, Purnawarman, produced the earliest known inscriptions in Java, which are estimated to date from aro ...
in
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
, and Holing ( Kalingga) in
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
, were among the early Hindu states established in the region. Several notable ancient Indonesian Hindu kingdoms are: Mataram, famous for the construction of the majestic
Prambanan Prambanan (, , Javanese script, Hanacaraka: ꦫꦫꦗꦺꦴꦁꦒꦿꦁ) is a 9th-century Hindu temple, Hindu Candi of Indonesia, temple compound in the Special Region of Yogyakarta, in southern Java, Indonesia, dedicated to the Trimurti, Trimūr ...
temple, followed by Kediri and
Singhasari Singhasari ( or , ), also known as Tumapel, was a Javanese people, Javanese Hindu-Buddist empires, Hindu-Buddhist Monarchy, kingdom located in east Java (island), Java between 1222 and 1292. The kingdom succeeded the Kingdom of Kediri as th ...
. Since then, Hinduism, along with
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
, spread across the archipelago and reached the peak of its influence in the fourteenth century. The last and largest of the Hindu-Buddhist Javanese empires, that of the
Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
, influenced the entire Indonesian archipelago.
Hinduism Hinduism () is an Hypernymy and hyponymy, umbrella term for a range of Indian religions, Indian List of religions and spiritual traditions#Indian religions, religious and spiritual traditions (Sampradaya, ''sampradaya''s) that are unified ...
and
Buddhism Buddhism, also known as Buddhadharma and Dharmavinaya, is an Indian religion and List of philosophies, philosophical tradition based on Pre-sectarian Buddhism, teachings attributed to the Buddha, a wandering teacher who lived in the 6th or ...
penetrated deeply into all aspects of society, blending with the indigenous tradition and culture. One conduit for this was the
ascetic Asceticism is a lifestyle characterized by abstinence from worldly pleasures through self-discipline, self-imposed poverty, and simple living, often for the purpose of pursuing spiritual goals. Ascetics may withdraw from the world for their pra ...
s, called "resi," (Sanskrit
rishi In Indian religions, a ''rishi'' ( ) is an accomplished and enlightened person. They find mention in various Vedic texts. Rishis are believed to have composed hymns of the Vedas. The Post-Vedic tradition of Hinduism regards the rishis as "gre ...
) who taught a variety of mystical practices. A resi lived surrounded by students, who took care of their master's daily needs. Resi's authorities were merely ceremonial. At the courts, Brahmanas clerics and ''pudjangga'' (sacred literati) legitimized rulers and linked
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
cosmology to their political needs. Presently, small
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
enclaves are scattered throughout Java, but there is a large
Hindu Hindus (; ; also known as Sanātanīs) are people who religiously adhere to Hinduism, also known by its endonym Sanātana Dharma. Jeffery D. Long (2007), A Vision for Hinduism, IB Tauris, , pp. 35–37 Historically, the term has also be ...
population along the eastern coast nearest
Bali Bali (English:; Balinese language, Balinese: ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia and the westernmost of the Lesser Sunda Islands. East of Java and west of Lombok, the province includes the island of Bali and a few smaller o ...
, especially around the town of
Banyuwangi Banyuwangi, previously known as Banjoewangi, is a large town and an administrative district (''kecamat5an'') which serves as the capital of Banyuwangi Regency at the far eastern end of the island of Java, Indonesia. It had a population of 106,000 ...
.


Islam

Java adopted Islam around 1500 CE. Islam was first accepted by the elites and upper echelons of society, which contributed to its further spread and acceptance. Sufism and other versions of Folk Islam were most easily integrated into the existing folk religion of Java. The learned versions of Sufi Islam and Shari`a-oriented Islam were integrated at the courts, blending with the rituals and myths of the existing Hindu-Buddhist culture. Clifford Geertz described this as
abangan The ''Abangan'' are Javanese people who are Muslims and practice a much more syncretic version of Islam than the more orthodox santri. The term, apparently derived from the Javanese language word for red, ''abang'', was first developed by Cliffo ...
and
priyayi ''Priyayi'' (also spelled ''Priayi''; Van Ophuijsen Spelling System, former spelling: ''Prijaji'') was the Dutch East Indies, Dutch-era class of the nobles of the robe, as opposed to royal nobility or ''List of Surakarta and Yogyakarta nobility ...
; "the lower class and elite varieties of Javanese syncretism". The
Kyai A kyai ( ) is an expert in Islam. This denomination is usually used among the ethnic Javanese people. Origins The word kyai is originally from Javanese. Sometimes, it is spelled kiai. Traditionally, students of Islam in Indonesia would study ...
, the Muslim scholar of the writ, became the new religious elite as Hindu influences receded. Islam recognises no hierarchy of religious leaders nor a formal priesthood, but the Dutch colonial government established an elaborate rank order for the mosque and other Islamic preaching schools. In Javanese ''
pesantren ''Pesantren'' is a traditional Islamic boarding school in Indonesia. It is taught either in private houses, a ''wiktionary:pondok, pondok'' or a mosque, the teaching includes classical Islamic texts and ''santri'' thought, taught by Kyai, ''kya ...
'' (Islamic schools), The ''Kyai'' perpetuated the tradition of the ''resi''. Students around him provided his needs, even
peasant A peasant is a pre-industrial agricultural laborer or a farmer with limited land-ownership, especially one living in the Middle Ages under feudalism and paying rent, tax, fees, or services to a landlord. In Europe, three classes of peasan ...
s around the school.


Christianity

Early 16th century,
Christianity Christianity is an Abrahamic monotheistic religion, which states that Jesus in Christianity, Jesus is the Son of God (Christianity), Son of God and Resurrection of Jesus, rose from the dead after his Crucifixion of Jesus, crucifixion, whose ...
was brought to Java by Portuguese traders and missionaries, from the
Dutch Reformed Church The Dutch Reformed Church (, , abbreviated NHK ) was the largest Christian denomination in the Netherlands from the onset of the Protestant Reformation in the 16th century until 1930. It was the traditional denomination of the Dutch royal famil ...
, and in the 20th century, also by Roman Catholics, such as the
Jesuits The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
and the
Divine Word Missionaries The Society of the Divine Word (), abbreviated SVD and popularly called the Verbites or the Divine Word Missionaries, and sometimes the Steyler Missionaries, is a Catholic clerical religious congregation of Pontifical Right for men. As of 2020, i ...
. Nowadays there are
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
communities, mostly Reformed in the larger cities, though some rural areas of south-central Java are strongly
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
.


Theosophy

Kejawèn is also influenced by
Theosophy Theosophy is a religious movement established in the United States in the late 19th century. Founded primarily by the Russian Helena Blavatsky and based largely on her writings, it draws heavily from both older European philosophies such as Neop ...
. Theosophy was a very popular religion among Dutch residents in the Dutch East Indies in the early 20th century. Also, many influential Indonesians joined the Theosophical Society. The Theosophical Society "played a role in the growth" of Kejawèn in the early and mid-twentieth century, and several kebatinan groups were founded by Theosophists. The kebatinan Budi Setia group, founded in 1949, considered "its formal transformation into a theosophical lodge".Sedgwick, M. J. (2017). Western Sufism: From the Abbasids to the new age.


Islam and kebatinan

Although the overwhelming majority of the population of Java is nominally Muslim, ''kejawen'', the syncretic Javanese culture, is a strong undercurrent. Some Javanese texts relate stories about Syekh Siti Jenar (also known as Syekh Lemah Abang) who had conflicts with
Wali Sanga ''Wali Songo'' (), also transcribed as ''Wali Sanga'', are revered saints of Islam in Indonesia, especially on the island of Java, because of their historic role in the spread of Islam in Indonesia. The word ''wali'' is Arabic for "trusted one ...
, the nine Islamic scholars in Java, and the
Sultanate of Demak The Demak Sultanate () was a Javanese Muslim state located on Java's north coast in Indonesia, at the site of the present-day city of Demak. A port fief to the Hindu-Buddhist Majapahit kingdom thought to have been founded in the last quarter of ...
. With the Islamisation of Java, there emerged a loosely structured society of religious leadership revolving around
kyai A kyai ( ) is an expert in Islam. This denomination is usually used among the ethnic Javanese people. Origins The word kyai is originally from Javanese. Sometimes, it is spelled kiai. Traditionally, students of Islam in Indonesia would study ...
s, Islamic experts possessing various degrees of proficiency in pre-Islamic and Islamic
lore Lore may refer to: * Folklore, acquired knowledge or traditional beliefs * Oral lore or oral tradition, orally conveyed cultural knowledge and traditions Places * Loré, former French commune * Loré (East Timor), a city and subdistrict in La ...
,
belief A belief is a subjective Attitude (psychology), attitude that something is truth, true or a State of affairs (philosophy), state of affairs is the case. A subjective attitude is a mental state of having some Life stance, stance, take, or opinion ...
, and practice. The Kyais are the principal intermediaries between the village masses and the realm of the
supernatural Supernatural phenomena or entities are those beyond the Scientific law, laws of nature. The term is derived from Medieval Latin , from Latin 'above, beyond, outside of' + 'nature'. Although the corollary term "nature" has had multiple meanin ...
. However, this very looseness of Kyai's leadership structure has promoted
schism A schism ( , , or, less commonly, ) is a division between people, usually belonging to an organization, movement, or religious denomination. The word is most frequently applied to a split in what had previously been a single religious body, suc ...
. There were often sharp divisions between orthodox kyais, who merely instructed in Islamic law, with those who taught
mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...
and those who sought reformed Islam with modern scientific concepts. As a result, the Javanese recognize two broad streams of religious commitment: # '' Santri'' or ''putihan'' ("pure ones") are those who pray, performing the five obligatory daily ritual prayers. They are more orthodox in their Islamic belief and practice, and oppose the ''abangan'', whom they consider to be heterodox. # ''
Abangan The ''Abangan'' are Javanese people who are Muslims and practice a much more syncretic version of Islam than the more orthodox santri. The term, apparently derived from the Javanese language word for red, ''abang'', was first developed by Cliffo ...
'', "the red ones", who do not strictly observe the Islamic rituals. They have mixed pre-Islamic
animistic Animism (from meaning 'breath, Soul, spirit, life') is the belief that objects, places, and creatures all possess a distinct Spirituality, spiritual essence. Animism perceives all things—animals, plants, Rock (geology), rocks, rivers, Weather, ...
and Hindu-Buddhist concepts with a superficial acceptance of Islamic belief, and emphasize the importance of the purity of the inner person, the ''batin''. This distinction between "the High Islam or scripturalist, shari`a-oriented Islam of the `ulama" and "living local Islam" or " Folk Islam" or "popular Islam" is not restricted to Java but can be found in other Islamic countries as well.
Ernest Gellner Ernest André Gellner (9 December 1925 – 5 November 1995) was a French-born British-Czech philosopher and social anthropologist described by ''The Daily Telegraph'', when he died, as one of the world's most vigorous intellectuals, and by '' ...
has developed an influential model of Muslim society, in which this dichotomy is central: Bruinessen finds this too limited and distinguishes three overlapping spheres: # Shari`a-oriented Islam, # Sufism (mystical Islam, which has its learned and popular variants), # The periphery of local rituals, local shrines, local spirit cults, and heterodox beliefs and practices in general. Javanese syncretistic religiousness has a strong popular base, outnumbering the santri and the support for Islamic political parties. Choy relates this to a Javanese apparent openness to new religions, but filtering out only those elements which fit into the Javanese culture. Choy mentions several reasons for this nominal Islamic identity: # The Islamic scholars in Java have been trained in curricula that were geared toward social conditions of two or three centuries ago, lacking the ability to impart the spirit and sense of Islam; # The inability to summarise the principles of Islam in understandable basic points that can be applied to daily life; # Kebatinan can be learned and understood without the need to learn Arabic. In the early 20th century, several groups became formalised, developing systematised teachings and rituals, thus offering a 'high' form of ''abangan'' religiosity as an alternative to the 'high' Islam. Bruinessen opines that the kebatinan-movements is a deliberate rejection of scriptural Islam, which arose out of " folk Islam".


Characteristics


Aim

''Kebatinan'' is derived from the Arabic word ''batin'', meaning "inner" or "hidden", or "inner self". It is a metaphysical search for harmony within one's inner self, connection with the universe, and with an Almighty God. ''Kebatinan'' believes in a "super-consciousness" that can be contacted through meditation.


Beliefs

''Kebatinan'' is a combination of metaphysics, mysticism, and other esoteric doctrines from Animistic, Hinduistic, Buddhist, and Islamic origins. Although the Javanese culture is tolerant and open to new religions, only those qualities accepted and filtered fit into the Javanese culture, character, and personality. Javanese ideals combine human wisdom (''wicaksana''), psyche (''waskita''), and perfection (''sempurna''). Followers must control their passions, eschewing earthly riches and comforts, so they may one day reach enlightened harmony and union with the spirit of the universe. According to Choy, the ''Kebatinan'' have no certain prophet, sacred book, nor distinct religious festivals and rituals. Nevertheless, various kebatinan-movements have their foundational writings and founders. A ''kebatinan'' practitioner can identify with one of the six officially recognized religions while still subscribing to the ''kebatinan'' belief and way of life.


Membership

Although ''kebatinan'' is a predominantly Javanese tradition, it has also attracted practitioners from other ethnic and religious groups, such as Chinese and Buddhists, and foreigners from Australia and Europe. President
Suharto Suharto (8 June 1921 – 27 January 2008) was an Indonesian Officer (armed forces), military officer and politician, and dictator, who was the second and longest serving president of Indonesia, serving from 1967 to 1998. His 32 years rule, cha ...
counted himself as one of its adherents. Their total membership is difficult to estimate as many of their adherents identify themselves with one of the official religions.


Official recognition

Although Pancasila, Indonesia's national philosophical foundation, recognizes only the "belief in the one and only God"—which is often justified as the sole recognition of
monotheism Monotheism is the belief that one God is the only, or at least the dominant deity.F. L. Cross, Cross, F.L.; Livingstone, E.A., eds. (1974). "Monotheism". The Oxford Dictionary of the Christian Church (2 ed.). Oxford: Oxford University Press. A ...
in the country—religions not recognized by the government are also tolerated. A broad plurality of religions and sects exist. In the middle of 1956, the
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
representative of the Department of Religious Affairs reported 63 religious sects in Java other than the official Indonesian religions. Of these, 22 were in
West Java West Java (, ) is an Indonesian Provinces of Indonesia, province on the western part of the island of Java, with its provincial capital in Bandung. West Java is bordered by the province of Banten and the country's capital region of Jakarta to t ...
, 35 were in
Central Java Central Java (, ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia, located in the middle of the island of Java. Its administrative capital is Semarang. It is bordered by West Java in the west, the Indian Ocean and the Special Region of Yogya ...
, and 6 in
East Java East Java (, , ) is a Provinces of Indonesia, province of Indonesia located in the easternmost third of Java island. It has a land border only with the province of Central Java to the west; the Java Sea and the Indian Ocean border its northern ...
. These also include kebatinan-groups, such as Sumarah. This loosely organized current of thought and practice was legitimized in the 1945 constitution, but failed to attain official recognition as a religion. In 1973 it was recognized as ''Kepercayaan kepada Tuhan Yang Maha Esa'' (Indonesian: Belief in One Mighty God), but withdrawn from the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Religion and placed under the jurisdiction of the Ministry of Education and Culture.


Practices

A variety of practices is being used in kebatinan to acquire ''ilmu'', namely ''tiraka'' and ''tapa'' or ''tapabrata''. Many Kebatinan followers practice in their own way to seek spiritual and emotional relief. These practices are not performed in churches or mosques, but at home or in caves or on mountain perches. Meditation in Javanese culture is a search for inner self-wisdom and to gain physical strength. This tradition is passed down from generation to generation.


Meditation

There are several ''tapa'': * tapa Ngalong (meditation by hanging from a tree) * tapa Kungkum (meditation under a small waterfall or meeting point of 2-3 rivers / ''Tempuran'' / ''Tjampuhan'')


Fasting

Fasting is a common practice employed by Javanese spiritualists to attain discipline of mind and body to get rid of material and emotional desires: * pasa Mutih (abstention from eating anything that is salted and sweetened, only eating/drinking pure water & rice) * pasa Senen-Kemis (fasting on Monday-Thursday) * pasa Ngebleng (fasting for a longer period, usually 3-5-7 days)


Animistic worship

''Kebatinan'' often implies animistic worship because it encourages sacrifices and devotions to local and ancestral spirits. These spirits are believed to inhabit natural objects, human beings, artifacts, and grave sites of important wali (Muslim saints). Illness and other misfortunes are traced to such spirits, and if sacrifices or pilgrimages fail to placate angry deities, the advice of a ''dukun'' or healer is sought.


Other practices

Other practices include: * tapa Pati-Geni (avoiding fire or light for a day or days and isolating oneself in dark rooms), * tapa Ngadam (stand/walk on foot from sunset till sunset, 24 hours in Silence)


Historical texts

Kebatinan and ''kejawen'' practices are extensively written about in texts that are held in the Sonobudoyo library in
Yogyakarta Yogyakarta is the capital city of the Special Region of Yogyakarta in Indonesia, in the south-central part of the island of Java. As the only Indonesian royal city still ruled by Hamengkubuwono, a monarchy, Yogyakarta is regarded as an importan ...
, and the main Kraton Libraries of
Surakarta Surakarta (Javanese script, Javanese: , Pegon script, Pegon: ), known colloquially as Solo (Javanese script, Javanese: ; ), is a major List of regencies and cities of Indonesia, city in Central Java, Indonesia. The city adjoins Karanganyar Reg ...
and Yogyakarta. Many of the texts are deliberately elliptical so that those who do not work with either initiates or teachers are unable to ascertain or understand the esoteric doctrines and practices. In quite a few cases, codified texts with secret systems to "unlock" the meanings are employed. But according to Bruinessen, the writing down of kebatinan teachings was a novelty which appeared with the institutionalisation of the kebatinan-movements in the beginning of the 20th century.


Kebatinan organisations

The appearance of formal kebatinan movements reflects the modernisation of Indonesia. Kebatinan movements appeared early in the 1900s in urban traditional elite circles, together with the rise of nationalism and the
Muhammadiyah Muhammadiyah (), officially Muhammadiyah Society () is a major Islamic non-governmental organization in Indonesia.A. Jalil HamidTackle the rising cost of living longer New Straits Times, 30 October 2016. Accessed 1 November 2016. The organization ...
, a modernist Islamic movement. Hardopusoro, one of the earliest kebatinan-movements, had strong links with the
Theosophical Society The Theosophical Society is the organizational body of Theosophy, an esoteric new religious movement. It was founded in New York City, U.S.A. in 1875. Among its founders were Helena Blavatsky, a Russian mystic and the principal thinker of the ...
. Some remained very elitist, while others also accepted lower urban and rural followings, thereby popularising abangan, or syncretistic Islam, as an alternative to shari`a-oriented Islam. After Indonesia gained independence in 1945, the kebatinan received political support and attracted large followings. Kebatinan movements were seen by secular nationalistic elites as allies against the rise of
political Islam Political Islam is the interpretation of Islam as a source of political identity and action. It advocates the formation of state and society according to (the advocates understanding of) Islamic principles, where Islam serves as a source of poli ...
. The political struggle between the Muslim parties and the Communists and Nationalists led to a sharper demarcation between syncretistic and shari`a-oriented Islam, whereby most kebatinan movements affiliated with the Communist or Nationalist Parties. Umbrella organisations representing several hundred kebatinan organisations lobbied to attain legitimacy and recognition as an official religion. They are registered at the HKP (Himpunan Penghayat Kepercayaan), which is controlled by the PAKEM (Pengawas Aliran Kepercayaan Masyarakat). After the Suharto-era (1967-1998), the kebatinan-movements lost political support, and have become less dynamic, their adherents avoiding public engagement. Altogether, several hundred kebatinan-groups are or have been registered, the best-known of which are: * Subud * Sumarah * Pangestu * Sapta Dharma * Majapahit Pancasila


Subud

Subud was founded in the 1920s by
Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo Muhammad Subuh Sumohadiwidjojo (born June 22, 1901, in Kedungjati, near Semarang, Java, Dutch East Indies; died June 23, 1987) was an Native Indonesians, Indonesian who founded the movement known as Subud. "Subud", by Gisella Webb, in ''America ...
. The name Subud was first used in the late 1940s when Subud was legally registered in Indonesia. The basis of Subud is a spiritual exercise commonly referred to as the '' latihan kejiwaan'', which was said by Muhammad Subuh to be guidance from "the Power of God" or "the Great Life Force". Subud aims to attain perfection of character according to the will of God. Only when passion, heart and mind are separated from the inner feeling is it possible to make contact with the "Great Life Force" which permeates everywhere. Muhammad Subuh saw the present age as one that demands personal evidence and proof of religious or spiritual realities, as people no longer just believe in words. He claimed that Subud is not a new teaching or religion but only that the latihan kejiwaan itself is the kind of proof that humanity is looking for. He also rejected the classification of Subud as a kebatinan organization. There are now Subud groups in about 83 countries, with a worldwide membership of about 10,000. The name ''Subud'' is said to be formed from the Sanskrit words ''susila'' ("the good character of man"), ''
bodhi The English term ''enlightenment'' is the Western translation of various Buddhist terms, most notably ''bodhi'' and ''vimutti''. The abstract noun ''bodhi'' (; Sanskrit: बोधि; Pali: ''bodhi'') means the knowledge or wisdom, or awakene ...
'' ("the force of the inner self") and ''
dharma Dharma (; , ) is a key concept in various Indian religions. The term ''dharma'' does not have a single, clear Untranslatability, translation and conveys a multifaceted idea. Etymologically, it comes from the Sanskrit ''dhr-'', meaning ''to hold ...
'' ("trust in God").SubudBritain, ''About Subud''
/ref>


Sumarah

Sumarah was formed in the 1930s by Pak Hardo, Pak Soekino and Pak Sutadi, without a formal organisation. In those early days, the younger members were taught ''kanoman'', occult practices including invulnerability for knives and guns. This was regarded as essential in the struggle against the Dutch colonial powers. Around 1950, when Indonesia became an independent nation, Sumarah was streamlined and organised by Dr. Surono. The emphasis shifted from magic to "surrender to God". From 1957 on internal struggles surfaced between dr. Surono and the founders Pak Hardo and Pak Sadina, leading to a change in leadership by dr. Ary Muthy in 1967. Sumarah theology maintains that humankind's soul is like the holy spirit, a spark from the Divine Essence, which means that we are, in essence, similar to God. In other words, "One can find God within oneself," a belief similar to the " I=
God In monotheistic belief systems, God is usually viewed as the supreme being, creator, and principal object of faith. In polytheistic belief systems, a god is "a spirit or being believed to have created, or for controlling some part of the un ...
" theory found in Hindu-Javanese literature. According to Sumarah theology, man and his physical and spiritual world are divided into three parts: * The physical body and brain. One section, ''Sukusma'', governs the passions. In the brain, the faculty of thinking has two functions: ** To record memories ** To serve as a means of communion with God * The invisible world, which is situated within the chest. It is the Jiwa, the ineffable soul, which provides the driving forces governing thought and reason. It is here that the deeper feeling (''Rasa'') is located. * The more elusive and sublime world. The most elusive and sublime world is hidden somewhere near the anatomical heart. Sumarah's conception of God is different from Islam. It has a
pantheistic Pantheism can refer to a number of Philosophy, philosophical and Religion, religious beliefs, such as the belief that the universe is God, or panentheism, the belief in a non-corporeal divine intelligence or God out of which the universe arise ...
vision of reality, considering God to be present in all living beings.


Pangestu

Pangestu was founded in 1949. Its doctrine was revealed in 1932 to Sunarto Mertowarjoyo, and written down in the ''Setat Sasangka Djati'' by R.T. Harjoparakowo and R. Trihardono Sumodiharjo Pangastu. It describes the way to obtain ''wahyu'', the blessing of God.


Sapta Dharma

Sapta Dharma was founded in 1952 by Harjo Sapura, after he received a revelation. According to Sri Pawenang, it was God's wish to provide the Indonesian people with a new spirituality in a time of crisis. Its aim is to free man of his passions. According to Sapta Dharma teachings, ''suji'' (meditation) is necessary to pierce through different layers of obstacles to reach
Semar Semar (Javanese script: ꦱꦼꦩꦂ) is a character in Javanese mythology who frequently appears in wayang shadow plays. He is one of the punokawan (clowns) but is divine and very wise. He is the Hyang, dhanyang (guardian spirit) of Java,Geertz ...
, the guardian spirit of Java. Theory and practice resemble Hindu Kundalini yoga, aiming at awakening the Kundalini energy and guiding it through the
chakra A chakra (; ; ) is one of the various focal points used in a variety of ancient meditation practices, collectively denominated as Tantra, part of the inner traditions of Hinduism and Buddhism. The concept of the chakra arose in Hinduism. B ...
s.


Majapahit Pancasila

Majapahit Majapahit (; (eastern and central dialect) or (western dialect)), also known as Wilwatikta (; ), was a Javanese people, Javanese Hinduism, Hindu-Buddhism, Buddhist thalassocracy, thalassocratic empire in Southeast Asia based on the island o ...
Pancasila was founded by W. Hardjanta Pardjapangarsa. It is based in Javanese Hindu-yogic practices, c.q. Kundalini yoga, rather than Balinese ritual practice as is prevalent in Parisada Hindu Dharma. According to Hardjanta, his meditation practices also lead to invulnerability for knives, daggers and other weapons.


Spread of Kebatinan


Malaysia

Kebatinan beliefs have spread to some parts of Malaysia, wherein certain individuals have combined it with Islamic concepts (e.g. proclaiming themselves to be new-age Islamic prophets but delivering messages that are a combination of Islamic and kebatinan beliefs). This has led to the Malaysian Islamic authorities declaring elements of kebatinan to be "syirik" ( shirk) and un-Islamic. Kebatinan interpretations of Islam are widespread in Malaysia among practitioners of
silat Silat is the collective term for a class of martial arts from the Nusantara and surrounding geocultural areas of Southeast Asia. It is traditionally practised in Brunei, Indonesia, Malaysia, Singapore, Southern Thailand, Southern Philippi ...
, traditional healers, and some preachers (such as Ariffin Mohammed and other self-proclaimed Islamic prophets).


Netherlands

In the Netherlands, the former colonial power in Indonesia, some kebatinan-groups are active.


Singapore

Since the majority of Singaporean Malays are of Indonesian descent, particularly from Java, many of Kebatinan are still practiced, usually among older people. However, the practice is still widespread among some Javanese Silat and Kuda Kepang groups, and also traditional shamans.


Suriname

It was brought to
Suriname Suriname, officially the Republic of Suriname, is a country in northern South America, also considered as part of the Caribbean and the West Indies. It is a developing country with a Human Development Index, high level of human development; i ...
by Javanese workers in the late 19th century.


See also

Belief systems * * * * * * * * * * * Gods and rituals * * * * * *


Notes


References


Sources


Published sources

* * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * *


Web-sources


Further reading

* * * * * *


External links


Kejawen, a Javanese traditional spiritual teaching - Joglosemar Online

A center for Javanese Metaphysics and Kundalini Yoga



SUMARAH: A STUDY OF THE ART OF LIVING

IndaNehsia.com, ''Religion at Java''
{{DEFAULTSORT:Javanese Beliefs Javanese culture Javanese spiritual movements Javanese mythology Islam in Indonesia Religion in Indonesia Religious syncretism in Asia