Kampo or , often known simply as , is the study of traditional medicine in Japan following its introduction, beginning in the 7th century. It was adapted and modified to suit Japanese culture and traditions. Traditional Japanese medicine uses most of the Chinese methods, including
acupuncture
Acupuncture is a form of alternative medicine and a component of traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) in which thin needles are inserted into the body. Acupuncture is a pseudoscience; the theories and practices of TCM are not based on scientif ...
,
moxibustion
Moxibustion () is a traditional Chinese medicine therapy which consists of burning dried mugwort ('' moxa'') on particular points on the body. It plays an important role in the traditional medical systems of China, Japan, Korea, Vietnam, and ...
mythology
Myth is a genre of folklore consisting primarily of narratives that play a fundamental role in a society. For scholars, this is very different from the vernacular usage of the term "myth" that refers to a belief that is not true. Instead, the ...
, the origins of traditional Chinese medicine are traced back to the three legendary sovereigns
Fuxi
Fuxi or Fu Hsi ( zh, c=伏羲) is a culture hero in Chinese mythology, credited along with his sister and wife Nüwa with creating humanity and the invention of music, hunting, fishing, domestication, and cooking, as well as the Cangjie syste ...
,
Shennong
Shennong ( zh, c=神農, p=Shénnóng), variously translated as "Divine Farmer" or "Divine Husbandman", born , was a mythological Chinese ruler known as the first Yan Emperor who has become a deity in Chinese and Vietnamese folk religion. H ...
and the
Yellow Emperor
The Yellow Emperor, also known as the Yellow Thearch, or Huangdi ( zh, t=黃帝, s=黄帝, first=t) in Chinese, is a mythical Chinese sovereign and culture hero included among the legendary Three Sovereigns and Five Emperors. He is revered as ...
. Shennong is believed to have tasted hundreds of herbs to ascertain their medicinal value and effects on the human body and help relieve people of their sufferings. The oldest written record focusing solely on the medicinal use of plants was the ''
Shennong Ben Cao Jing
''Shennong Bencaojing'' (also ''Classic of the Materia Medica'' or ''Shen-nong's Herbal Classics'' and ''Shen-nung Pen-tsao Ching''; ) is a Chinese book on agriculture and medicinal plants, traditionally attributed to Shennong. Researchers belie ...
'' which was compiled around the end of the first century B.C. and is said to have classified 365 species of herbs or medicinal plants.
Chinese medical practices were introduced to Japan during the 6th century A.D. In 608,
Empress Suiko
(554 – 15 April 628) was the 33rd monarch of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō''):
She introduced Buddhism in Japan and built many Buddhist temples, but she held the balance between Buddhism and Shintoism. Under her rule, Japan ...
dispatched E-Nichi, Fuku-In and other young physicians to China. It is said that they studied medicine there for 15 years. Until 838, Japan sent 19 missions to
Tang China
The Tang dynasty (, ; zh, c=唐朝), or the Tang Empire, was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 618 to 907, with an Wu Zhou, interregnum between 690 and 705. It was preceded by the Sui dynasty and followed ...
. While the officials studied Chinese government structures, physicians and many of the Japanese monks absorbed Chinese medical knowledge.
Early Japanese adaptation
In 702 A.D., the
Taihō Code
The was an administrative reorganisation enacted in 703 in Japan, at the end of the Asuka period. It was historically one of the . It was compiled at the direction of Prince Osakabe, Fujiwara no Fuhito and Awata no Mahito. Nussbaum, Louis- ...
was promulgated as an adaptation of the governmental system of China's Tang dynasty. One section called for the establishment of a university (''daigaku'') including a medical school with an elaborate training program, but due to incessant civil war this program never became effective.
Empress Kōmyō
(701 – 23 July 760), born Fujiwara Asukabehime (藤原 安宿媛), was the consort of Japanese Emperor Shōmu (701–756) during the Nara Period.Ponsonby-Fane, Richard. (1959). ''The Imperial House of Japan,'' pp. 57-58.
Life
A member of ...
(701–760) established the ''Hidenin'' and ''Seyakuin'' in the Kōfuku-Temple (
Kōfuku-ji
is a Buddhist temple that was once one of the powerful Seven Great Temples in the city of Nara, Japan. The temple is the national headquarters of the Hossō school. It is part of Historic Monuments of Ancient Nara, a World Heritage Site.
H ...
) in
Nara
The National Archives and Records Administration (NARA) is an independent agency of the United States government within the executive branch, charged with the preservation and documentation of government and historical records. It is also task ...
, being two Buddhist institutions that provided free healthcare and medicine for the needy. For centuries to come Japanese Buddhist monks were essential in conveying Chinese medical know-how to Japan and in providing health care for both the elite and the general population.
In 753 A.D., the Chinese priest
Jianzhen
Jianzhen (688–763), also known by his Japanese name Ganjin (,), was a Tang Chinese monk who helped to propagate Buddhism in Japan. In the eleven years from 743 to 754, Jianzhen attempted to visit Japan some six times, arriving in the year ...
(in Japanese Ganjin), who was well-versed in medicine, arrived in Japan after five failed attempts in 12 years to cross the
East China Sea
The East China Sea is a marginal sea of the Western Pacific Ocean, located directly offshore from East China. China names the body of water along its eastern coast as "East Sea" (, ) due to direction, the name of "East China Sea" is otherwise ...
. As he was blind, he used his sense of smell to identify herbs. He brought medical texts and a large collection of
materia medica
''Materia medica'' ( lit.: 'medical material/substance') is a Latin term from the history of pharmacy for the body of collected knowledge about the therapeutic properties of any substance used for healing (i.e., medications). The term derives f ...
to the imperial palace in Nara, which he dedicated to the
Emperor Shōmu
was the 45th Emperor of Japan, emperor of Japan,Imperial Household Agency (''Kunaichō'') 聖武天皇 (45)/ref> according to the traditional List of Emperors of Japan, order of succession. Shōmu's reign spanned the years 724 through 749, duri ...
in 756, 49 days after the emperor's death. They are kept in a log-cabin-style treasure house of the Tōdai-Temple (
Tōdai-ji
is a Buddhist temple complex that was once one of the powerful Nanto Shichi Daiji, Seven Great Temples, located in the city of Nara, Nara, Nara, Japan. The construction of the temple was an attempt to imitate Chinese temples from the much-admir ...
) known as
Shōsōin
The is the wikt:treasure house, treasure house of Tōdai-ji Temple in Nara, Nara, Nara, Japan. The building is in the ''azekura'' (log-cabin) style with a raised floor. It lies to the northwest of the Great Buddha Hall. The Shōsō-in houses arti ...
.
In 787 A.D., the "Newly Revised Materia Medica" (''Xinxiu Bencao'', 659 A.D.), which had been sponsored by the Tang Imperial Court, became an obligatory text in the study of medicine at the Japanese Health Ministry, but many of the 844 medicinal substances described in this book were not available in Japan at the time. Around 918 A.D., a Japanese medical dictionary entitled "Japanese names of (Chinese) Materia Medica" (''Honzō-wamyō'') was compiled, quoting from 60 Chinese medical works.
During the
Heian period
The is the last division of classical Japanese history, running from 794 to 1185. It followed the Nara period, beginning when the 50th emperor, Emperor Kammu, moved the capital of Japan to Heian-kyō (modern Kyoto). means in Japanese. It is a ...
, Tanba Yasuyori (912–995) compiled the first Japanese medical book, Ishinpō ("Prescriptions from the Heart of Medicine"), drawing from numerous Chinese texts, some of which have perished later. During the period from 1200 to 1600, medicine in Japan became more practical. Most of the physicians were Buddhist monks who continued to use the formulas, theories and practices that had been introduced by the early envoys from Tang China.
Early revision
During the 15th and 16th centuries, Japanese physicians began to achieve a more independent view on Chinese medicine. After 12 years of studies in China
Tashiro Sanki
was a Japanese doctor of ''kampo'' and the founder of the ''Gosei-ha'' school of medicine. He was a teacher of Manase Dōsan.
Tashiro studied abroad in China between 1487 and 1498, and returned to Japan with new ideas regarding medicine. He pro ...
(1465–1537) became the leading figure of a movement called "Followers of Later Developments in Medicine" (''Gosei-ha''). This school propagated the teachings of Li Dongyuan and Zhu Tanxi that gradually superseded the older doctrines from the
Song dynasty
The Song dynasty ( ) was an Dynasties of China, imperial dynasty of China that ruled from 960 to 1279. The dynasty was founded by Emperor Taizu of Song, who usurped the throne of the Later Zhou dynasty and went on to conquer the rest of the Fiv ...
. Manase Dōsan, one of his disciples, adapted Tashiro's teachings to Japanese conditions. Based on his own observation and experience, he compiled a book on internal medicine in eight volumes (''Keiteki-shū'') and established an influential private medical school (''Keiteki-in'') in Kyōto. His son Gensaku wrote a book of case studies (''Igaku tenshō-ki'') and developed a considerable number of new herb formulas.
From the second half of the 17th century, a new movement, the "Followers of Classic Methods" (''Kohō-ha''), evolved, which emphasized the teachings and formulas of the Chinese classic "Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders" (''
Shanghan Lun
The ''Shanghan Lun'' (; variously known in English as the ''Treatise on Cold Damage Diseases','' ''Treatise on Cold Damage Disorders'' or the ''Treatise on Cold Injury'') is a part of ''Shanghan Zabing Lun'' (. It is a Traditional Chinese med ...
'', in Japanese ''Shōkan-ron''). While the etiological concepts of this school were as speculative as those of the ''Gosei-ha'', the therapeutic approaches were based on empirical observations and practical experience. This return to "classic methods" was initiated by Nagoya Gen'i (1628–1696), and advocated by influential proponents such as Gotō Gonzan (1659–1733), Yamawaki Tōyō (1705–1762), and Yoshimasu Tōdō (1702–1773). Yoshimasu is considered to be the most influential figure. He accepted any effective technique, regardless of its particular philosophical background. Yoshimasu's abdominal diagnostics are commonly credited with differentiating early modern traditional Japanese medicine from
traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medicine, alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence ...
(TCM).
During the later part of the Edo period, many Japanese practitioners began to utilize elements of both schools. Some, such as Ogino Gengai (1737–1806), Ishizaka Sōtetsu (1770–1841), or Honma Sōken (1804–1872), even tried to incorporate Western concepts and therapies, which had made their way into the country through physicians at the Dutch trading-post
Dejima
or Deshima, in the 17th century also called , was an artificial island off Nagasaki, Japan, that served as a trading post for the Portuguese (1570–1639) and subsequently the Dutch (1641–1858). For 220 years, it was the central con ...
(
Nagasaki
, officially , is the capital and the largest Cities of Japan, city of Nagasaki Prefecture on the island of Kyushu in Japan.
Founded by the Portuguese, the port of Portuguese_Nagasaki, Nagasaki became the sole Nanban trade, port used for tr ...
). Although Western medicine gained some ground in the field of
surgery
Surgery is a medical specialty that uses manual and instrumental techniques to diagnose or treat pathological conditions (e.g., trauma, disease, injury, malignancy), to alter bodily functions (e.g., malabsorption created by bariatric surgery s ...
, there was not much competition between "Eastern" and "Western" schools until the 19th century, because even adherents of "Dutch-Studies" (
Rangaku
''Rangaku'' (Kyūjitai: , ), and by extension , is a body of knowledge developed by Japan through its contacts with the Dutch enclave of Dejima, which allowed Japan to keep abreast of Western technology and medicine in the period when the countr ...
) were very eclectic in their actual practice.
Traditional medicine never lost its popularity throughout the Edo period, but it entered a period of rapid decline shortly after the
Meiji Restoration
The , referred to at the time as the , and also known as the Meiji Renovation, Revolution, Regeneration, Reform, or Renewal, was a political event that restored Imperial House of Japan, imperial rule to Japan in 1868 under Emperor Meiji. Althoug ...
. In 1871, the new government decided to modernize medical education based on the German medical system. Starting in 1875, new medical examinations focused on natural sciences and Western medical disciplines. In October 1883, a law retracted the licenses of any existing traditional practitioner. Despite losing legal standing, a small number of traditional physicians continued to practice privately. Some of them, such as Yamada Gyōkō (1808–1881), Asada Sōhaku (1813–1894), and Mori Risshi (1807–1885), organized an "Association to Preserve raditionalKnowledge" (''Onchi-sha'') and started to set up small hospitals. However, by 1887, the organization was disbanded due to internal policy dissent and the death of leading figures. The "Imperial Medical Association" (''Teikoku Ikai''), founded in 1894, was short-lived too. In 1895, the 8th National Assembly of the Diet vetoed a request to continue the practice of Kampō. When Azai Kokkan (1848–1903), one of the main activists, died, the Kampō movement was almost stamped out.
Era of Western influence
Any further attempt to save traditional practices had to take into account Western concepts and therapies. Therefore, it was graduates from medical faculties, trained in Western medicine, who began to set out to revive traditional practices. In 1910, Wada Keijūrō (1872–1916) published "The Iron Hammer of the Medical World" (''Ikai no tettsui''). Yumoto Kyūshin (1876–1942), a graduate from Kanazawa Medical School, was so impressed by this book that he became a student of Dr. Wada. His "Japanese-Chinese Medicine" (''Kōkan igaku''), published in 1927, was the first book on Kampō medicine in which Western medical findings were used to interpret classical Chinese texts. In 1927, Nakayama Tadanao (1895–1957) presented his "New Research on Kampō-Medicine" (''Kampō-igaku no shin kenkyū''). Another "convert" was Ōtsuka Keisetsu (1900–1980), who became one of the most famous Kampō practitioners of the 20th century.
This gradual revival was supported by the modernization of the dosage form of herbal medicine. During the 1920s, the Nagakura Pharmaceutical Company in Osaka began developing dried decoctions in a granular form. At about the same time, Tsumura Juntendō, a company founded by Tsumura Jūsha (1871–1941) in 1893, established a research institute to promote the development of standardized Kampō medicine. Gradually, these "Japanese-Chinese remedies" (''wakan-yaku'') became a standard method of Kampō medicine administration.
In 1937, new researchers such as Yakazu Dōmei (1905–2002) started to promote Kampō at the so-called "
Takushoku University
Takushoku University (拓殖 大学; ''Takushoku Daigaku'', abbreviated as 拓大 ''Takudai'') is a private university in Tokyo, Japan. It was founded in 1900 by Prince (title for a Duke at that time) Taro Katsura (1848–1913).
Approved Kampō medicines
Today in Japan, Kampō is integrated into the Japanese national health care system. In 1967, the
Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare
The is a cabinet level ministry of the Japanese government. It is commonly known as in Japan. The ministry provides services on health, labour and welfare.
It was formed with the merger of the former Ministry of Health and Welfare or and th ...
approved four Kampō medicines for reimbursement under the National Health Insurance (NHI) program. In 1976, 82 Kampō medicines were approved by the Ministry of Health, Labour and Welfare. This number has increased to 148 Kampō formulation extracts, 241 crude drugs, and 5 crude drug preparations.
Rather than modifying formulae as in
traditional Chinese medicine
Traditional Chinese medicine (TCM) is an alternative medicine, alternative medical practice drawn from traditional medicine in China. A large share of its claims are pseudoscientific, with the majority of treatments having no robust evidence ...
, the Japanese Kampō tradition uses fixed combinations of herbs in standardized proportions according to the classical literature of Chinese medicine. Kampō medicines are produced by various manufacturers. However, each medicine is composed of exactly the same ingredients under the Ministry's standardization methodology. The medicines are therefore prepared under strict manufacturing conditions that rival pharmaceutical companies. In October 2000, a nationwide study reported that 72% of registered
physician
A physician, medical practitioner (British English), medical doctor, or simply doctor is a health professional who practices medicine, which is concerned with promoting, maintaining or restoring health through the Medical education, study, Med ...
s prescribe Kampō medicines. New Kampō medicines are being evaluated using modern techniques to evaluate their mechanism of action .
Herbs
The 14th edition of the ''Japanese Pharmacopoeia'' (JP, ''Nihon yakkyokuhō'') lists 165 herbal ingredients that are used in Kampō medicines. Lots of the Kampō products are routinely tested for heavy metals, purity, and microbial content to eliminate any contamination. Kampō medicines are tested for the levels of key chemical constituents as markers for quality control on every formula. This is carried out from the blending of the raw herbs to the end product according to the ministry's pharmaceutical standards.
Medicinal mushrooms
Medicinal fungi are fungi that contain metabolites or can be induced to produce metabolites through biotechnology to develop prescription drugs. Compounds successfully developed into drugs or under research include those treating infection with am ...
shiitake
The shiitake (; ''Chinese/black mushroom'' or ''Lentinula edodes'') is a macrofungus native to East Asia, which is cultivated and consumed around the globe.
Taxonomy
The fungus was first described scientifically as '' Agaricus edodes'' by ...
are herbal products with a long history of use. In Japan, the '' Agaricus blazei'' mushroom is a highly popular herb, which is used by close to 500,000 people. In Japan, ''Agaricus blazei'' is also the most popular herb used by cancer patients. The second most used herb is an isolate from the shiitake mushroom, known as active hexose correlated compound.
Outside Japan
In the
United States
The United States of America (USA), also known as the United States (U.S.) or America, is a country primarily located in North America. It is a federal republic of 50 U.S. state, states and a federal capital district, Washington, D.C. The 48 ...
, Kampō is practiced mostly by acupuncturists, Chinese medicine practitioners, naturopath physicians, and other
alternative medicine
Alternative medicine refers to practices that aim to achieve the healing effects of conventional medicine, but that typically lack biological plausibility, testability, repeatability, or supporting evidence of effectiveness. Such practices are ...
professionals. Kampō herbal formulae are studied under clinical trials, such as the clinical study of Honso Sho-saiko-to (H09) for treatment of hepatitis C at the New York Memorial Sloan-Kettering Cancer Center, and liver cirrhosis caused by hepatitis C at the UCSD Liver Center. Both clinical trials are sponsored by Honso USA, Inc., a branch of Honso Pharmaceutical Co., Ltd., Nagoya, Japan.
Gallery
File:Kampo in Asakusa Tokyo Japan Apr 17 2022 02-42PM.jpeg, Kampo in Asakusa Tokyo Japan
File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 009 - 青蘇 - Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton, 1804.jpg, Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 25, page 009 - 青蘇 - Perilla frutescens (L.) Britton, 1804
File:Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 23, page 003 - 胡蘿蔔 - Daucus carota L. - 牛蒡 - Arctium lappa L., 1804.jpg, Leiden University Library - Seikei Zusetsu vol. 23, page 003 - 胡蘿蔔 - Daucus carota L. - 牛蒡 - Arctium lappa L., 1804
File:Kanzou2012.jpg, Glycyrrhiza (Licorice)
File:Hepburn-1867-Kampo.jpg, One of the first sources showing the term "Kampō" in its modern sense (James Curtis Hepburn: ''A Japanese and English Dictionary; with an English and Japanese Index''. London: Trübner & Co., 1867, p. 177.)
Macrobiotic diet
A macrobiotic diet (or macrobiotics) is an unconventional restrictive diet based on ideas about types of food drawn from Zen Buddhism. The diet tries to balance the supposed yin and yang elements of food and cookware. Major principles of macrobi ...