Kalam is a Kalam language of

Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niugini; ho, Independen Stet bilong Papua Niu Gini), is a country i ...

. It is closely related to Kobon, and shares many of the features of that language. Kalam is spoken in

Middle Ramu District Middle Ramu District is a district in the south-west of Madang Province in Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), officially the Independent State of Papua New Guinea ( tpi, Ind ...

Madang Province Madang is a province of Papua New Guinea. The province is on the northern coast of mainland Papua New Guinea and has many of the country's highest peaks, active volcanoes and its biggest mix of languages. The capital is the town of Madang. D ...

and in Mount Hagen District of

Western Highlands Province Western Highlands is a province of Papua New Guinea. The provincial capital is Mount Hagen. The province covers an area of 4,299 km2, and there are 362,850 inhabitants (2011 census), making the Western Highlands the most densely populated pr ...

. Thanks to decades of studies by anthropologists such as

Ralph Bulmer Ralph Neville Hermon Bulmer (3 April 1928 – 18 July 1988) was a twentieth-century ethnobiologist who worked in Papua New Guinea, particularly with the Kalam people. From 1974 he made a radical shift by changing the role of his Kalam informa ...

and others, Kalam is one of the best-studied Trans-New Guinea languages to date.

Dialects

There are two distinct dialects of Kalam that are highly distinguishable from each other. *Etp, with 20,000 speakers, is centered in the Upper Kaironk and Upper Simbai Valleys. *Ti, with 5,000 speakers is centered in the Asai Valley. It includes the Tai variety. Kobon is closely related. Kalam has an elaborate pandanus avoidance register used during

karuka The karuka (''Pandanus julianettii'', also called karuka nut and ''Pandanus'' nut) is a species of tree in the family Pandanaceae and an important regional food crop in New Guinea. The nuts are more nutritious than coconuts, and are so popul ...

harvest that has been extensively documented. The Kalam pandanus language, called () or (), is also used when eating or cooking

cassowary Cassowaries ( tpi, muruk, id, kasuari) are flightless birds of the genus ''Casuarius'' in the order Casuariiformes. They are classified as ratites (flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bones) and are native to the tropical ...

Phonology

Consonants

Vowels

Evolution

Below are some Kalam reflexes of proto-Trans-New Guinea proposed by Pawley (2012, 2018).Note: Data in Pawley (2012) is drawn from Pawley and Bulmer (2011). Data is from the Etp dialect unless otherwise noted. Data from Ti, the other one of the two major dialects is also given when noted.

Verbs

Kalam has eight tense-aspect categories. There are four past tenses, two present tenses, and two future tenses, which are all marked using suffixes: *past habitual *remote past (yesterday or earlier) *today's past *immediate past *present habitual *present progressive *immediate future *future

Intransitive verb In grammar, an intransitive verb is a verb whose context does not entail a direct object. That lack of transitivity distinguishes intransitive verbs from transitive verbs, which entail one or more objects. Additionally, intransitive verbs a ...

s in Kalam can be classified as either active or stative. Some active intransitive verbs are: *- ‘go’ *- ‘sleep’ *- ‘stand, dance’ *- ‘die, cease to function’ Some stative verbs are: *- ‘(of things) break, be broken’ *- ‘(of a fire) go out’ *- ‘burn, be burnt, fully cooked’ *- ‘(of solid objects and surfaces) crack, burst, shatter’

Serial verb constructions

Transitivity is derived using resultative or cause-effect

serial verb construction The serial verb construction, also known as (verb) serialization or verb stacking, is a syntactic phenomenon in which two or more verbs or verb phrases are strung together in a single clause.Tallerman, M. (1998). ''Understanding Syntax''. London: A ...

s. (1) : :‘put out a fire’ (2) : :‘knock something to bits, shatter something’ (3) : :‘blow out a flame’ (4) : :‘prise something open’ (5) : :‘split something by wedging or levering’ (6) : :‘break something off by stepping on it’ (7) : :‘gouge something out’ Other serial verb constructions in Kalam include: *''d ap'' (get come) ‘bring’ *''d am'' (get go) ‘take’ *''am d ap'' (go get come) ‘fetch’ *''d nŋ'' (touch perceive) ‘feel’ *''ñb nŋ'' (eat perceive) ‘taste’ *''tb tk'' (cut sever) ‘cut off’

Nouns

Compounds

Some examples of nominal compounds in Kalam: (1) :bin-b :woman-man :‘person, people’ (2) :ña-pañ :son-daughter :‘child, children’ (3) :aps-basd :grandmother-grandfather :‘grandparents’ (4) :ami-gon bapi-gon :mother-children father-children :‘nuclear family, parents and children’ (5) :kmn-as :game.mammal-small.wild.mammal :‘wild mammals’ (6) :kaj-kayn-kobti :pig-dog-cassowary :‘large animals’ (7) :kmn-kaj-kobti :game.mammal-pig-cassowary :‘animals that provide ceremonially valued meat’ (8) :mñ-mon :vine-tree :‘land, country, territory, world’ (9) : :‘everyday activities’

Animal names

Fauna classification (

folk taxonomy A folk taxonomy is a vernacular naming system, as distinct from scientific taxonomy. Folk biological classification is the way people traditionally describe and organize their natural surroundings/the world around them, typically making generou ...

) in the Kalam language has been extensively studied by

and others. Kalam speakers classify wild mammals into three major categories: * ‘game mammals, larger wild mammals’: tree kangaroos,

wallabies A wallaby () is a small or middle-sized macropod native to Australia and New Guinea, with introduced populations in New Zealand, Hawaii, the United Kingdom and other countries. They belong to the same taxonomic family as kangaroos and so ...

cuscus Cuscus ( or ) is the common name generally given to the species within the four genera of Australasian possum of the family Phalangeridae with the most tropical distribution: * '' Ailurops'' * '' Phalanger'' * '' Spilocuscus'' * '' Strigocuscus ...

es,

ringtail possum Pseudocheiridae is a family of arboreal marsupials containing 17 extant species of ringtailed possums and close relatives. They are found in forested areas and shrublands throughout Australia and New Guinea. Characteristics Physically, they app ...

s, giant rats, and

bandicoot Bandicoots are a group of more than 20 species of small to medium-sized, terrestrial, largely nocturnal marsupial omnivores in the order Peramelemorphia. They are endemic to the Australia–New Guinea region, including the Bismarck Archipelag ...

s * ‘small wild mammals’: most bush-rats,

sugar glider The sugar glider (''Petaurus breviceps'') is a small, omnivorous, arboreal, and nocturnal gliding possum belonging to the marsupial infraclass. The common name refers to its predilection for sugary foods such as sap and nectar and its ab ...

s, and

pygmy possum The pygmy possums are a family of small possums that together form the marsupial family Burramyidae. The five extant species of pygmy possum are grouped into two genera. Four of the species are endemic to Australia, with one species also co-occu ...

s (including '' Pogonomys'' spp., ''

Melomys ''Melomys'' is a genus of rodents in the family Muridae. Members of this genus live in the wet habitats of northern Australia (Far North Queensland), New Guinea, Torres Strait Islands and islands of the Indonesian archipelago. Species The genu ...

'' spp., and '' Phascolosorex dorsalis''Bulmer, Ralph N.H. and Michael Tyler. 1968
Karam classification of frogs
''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 77(4): 621–639.) * ‘dirty rats’ (''

Rattus ''Rattus'' is a genus of muroid rodents, all typically called rats. However, the term rat can also be applied to rodent species outside of this genus. Species and description The best-known ''Rattus'' species are the black rat (''R. rattus'' ...

'' spp.) Other animal categories are: * ‘flying birds and bats’ * ‘

cassowaries Cassowaries ( tpi, muruk, id, kasuari) are flightless birds of the genus ''Casuarius'' in the order Casuariiformes. They are classified as ratites (flightless birds without a keel on their sternum bones) and are native to the tropical for ...

’ * ‘pigs’ (formerly including cattle, horses, and goats when first encountered by the Kalam) * ‘dogs’ * ‘certain snakes’ * ‘

skink Skinks are lizards belonging to the family Scincidae, a family in the infraorder Scincomorpha. With more than 1,500 described species across 100 different taxonomic genera, the family Scincidae is one of the most diverse families of lizards. S ...

s’ Rodent names include: *House Rat ('' Rattus exulans'', ''

Rattus niobe The moss-forest rat (''Rattus niobe'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as katgn in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; ...

'', '' Rattus ruber'') – ~ *Garden Rat ('' Rattus ruber'') – *Long-snouted Rat (''

Rattus verecundus The slender rat (''Rattus verecundus'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as sjang in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (ab ...

'') – *Small Mountain Rat (''

'') – *Prehensile-tailed Rat (Bush-tailed Giant Rat) (''

Pogonomelomys sevia The highland brush mouse (''Abeomelomys sevia''), also known as the Menzies' mouse, is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea, and is found in montane moss forests and in alpine zones over 2,000 m. It i ...

'') – ~ , , *Giant Bamboo Rat (Rothschild's Woolly Rat) ('' Mallomys rothschildi'') – ; , , *Giant Cane Rat (''

Hyomys goliath The eastern white-eared giant rat (''Hyomys goliath'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found only in Papua New Guinea. The species has been known to eat karuka nuts (''Pandanus julianettii''), and growers will put platforms o ...

'') – *Grassland Melomys Rat (''

Melomys rufescens The black-tailed mosaic-tailed rat (''Melomys rufescens'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is endemic to the island of New Guinea. Names It is known as alks in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea ( ...

'') – *Lorentz's Rat (''

Melomys lorentzii Lorentz's mosaic-tailed rat (''Paramelomys lorentzii'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. The rat is named after Hendrikus Albertus Lorentz, a Dutch explorer who passed throu ...

'', ''

Melomys platyops The lowland mosaic-tailed rat (''Paramelomys platyops'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua Niugini; ho, Papua Niu Gini), offic ...

'') – ; (''M. lorentzii'' spreads '' Pandanus julianettii'' () seeds, according to the Kalam) *rat that feeds on

pandanus ''Pandanus'' is a genus of monocots with some 750 accepted species. They are palm-like, dioecious trees and shrubs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics. The greatest number of species are found in Madagascar and Malaysia. Common names ...

nuts (''

Anisomys imitator The squirrel-toothed rat (''Anisomys imitator''), also known as the New Guinea giant rat, powerful-toothed rat, uneven-toothed rat, or narrow-toothed giant rat, is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is the only species in the genus ''A ...

'') – ~ *Highland Giant Tree Rat (''

Uromys anak The giant naked-tailed rat (''Uromys anak'') is a species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It lives in tropical forests, wetlands, and in degraded forests. Names It is known as abben i ...

'') – *Lowland Giant Tree Rat (''

Uromys caudimaculatus The giant white-tailed rat (''Uromys caudimaculatus'') is an Australian rodent native to tropical rainforest of north Queensland, with subspecies occurring in New Guinea and the Aru Islands. It is one of the largest rodents in Australia, reaching ...

'') – *Mountain Water-rat (''

Hydromys shawmayeri Shaw Mayer's water rat (''Baiyankamys shawmayeri'') is a semiaquatic species of rodent in the family Muridae. It is found in the mountains of Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as kuypep kuykuy-sek in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea ...

'') – *Waterside Rat ('' Parahydromys asper'') – , *Earless Water Rat (''

Crossomys moncktoni The earless water rat (''Crossomys moncktoni'') is a New Guinea rodent, part of the ''Hydromys'' group of the subfamily of Old World rats and mice (Murinae). It is the only species of the genus ''Crossomys''. This species is probably most closely ...

'') – *small rat, found near homesteads – Marsupial names include: *'' Pseudochirops corinnae'' (Golden or Stationary Ringtail) – *'' Pseudochirops cupreus'' (Copper Ringtail) – *'' Pseudochirulus forbesi'' – (Painted Ringtail) – *''

Cercartetus caudatus The long-tailed pygmy possum (''Cercartetus caudatus'') is a diprotodont marsupial found in the rainforests of northern Australia and New Guinea. Living at altitudes of above , it eats insects and nectar, and may eat pollen in place of insects i ...

'' (Pygmy Possum) – *''

Dactylopsila palpator The long-fingered triok (''Dactylopsila palpator'') is a species of marsupial in the family Petauridae. It is found in West Papua, Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. It is known as blc in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New ...

'' (Mountain striped possum, Long-fingered Triok) – *'' Echymipera'' sp. – ? *'' Phalanger carmelitae'' (Black Mountain Cuscus) – *'' Phalanger gymnotis'' (Ground Cuscus) – *''

Phalanger maculatus The common spotted cuscus (''Spilocuscus maculatus''), also known as the white cuscus, is a cuscus, a marsupial that lives in the Cape York region of Australia, New Guinea, and nearby smaller islands. Names It is known as aklang or gabi in the ...

'' – *'' Phalanger orientalis'' – ? *''

Phalanger permixteo ''Phalanger'' (from the Greek ''phalangion'', meaning spider's web, from their webbed (fused) toesChambers English Dictionary) is a genus of possums. Its members are found on New Guinea, the Maluku Islands, other nearby small islands, and Aust ...

'' – ? *''

Phalanger sericeus The silky cuscus (''Phalanger sericeus'') is a species of marsupial in the family Phalangeridae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as atwak, añ, sosus, or beŋ-tud in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea.Pawle ...

'' (Silky Cuscus, Beech Cuscus) – *'' Phalanger'' sp. – *'' Spilocuscus maculatus'' – *''

Microperoryctes longicauda The striped bandicoot (''Microperoryctes longicauda'') is a species of marsupial in the family Peramelidae. It is found in West Papua and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. The striped bandicoot is a ho ...

'' (Long-tailed Bandicoot) – *''

Peroryctes raffrayana Raffray's bandicoot (''Peroryctes raffrayana'') is a species of marsupial in the family Peroryctidae. It is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical dry forests. It is known as pakam in the Kalam l ...

'' (Hunting Bandicoot) – *'' Phascolosorex dorsalis'' – ; may also refer to ''

Antechinus melanurus The black-tailed dasyure (''Murexia melanurus'') is a species of marsupial in the family Dasyuridae. Range and habitat The Black-tailed dasyure is native to New Guinea, where it ranges across the Central Cordillera of Western New Guinea, whic ...

'' (Marsupial Rat) *'' Dasyurus albopunctatus'' (New Guinea Quoll, Marsupial Cat) – *''

Dendrolagus goodfellowi Goodfellow's tree-kangaroo (''Dendrolagus goodfellowi''), also called the ornate tree-kangaroo, is an endangered, long-tailed, bear-like mammal native to rainforests of New Guinea. Like most tree-kangaroos (genus ''Dendrolagus''), it lives in the ...

'' (Tree Kangaroo) - *'' Petaurus breviceps'' (Sugar Glider) – *''

Thylogale brunii The dusky pademelon or dusky wallaby (''Thylogale brunii'') is a species of marsupial in the family Macropodidae. It is found in the Aru and Kai islands and the Trans-Fly savanna and grasslands ecoregion of New Guinea. Its natural habitats are ...

'' (Bush Wallaby) – *''

Dorcopsulus vanheurni The small dorcopsis or lesser forest wallaby (''Dorcopsulus vanheurni'') is a species of marsupial in the family Macropodidae. It is found in the mountainous interior of West Papua and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tro ...

'' (Small Forest Wallaby, Common Mountain Forest Wallaby) - Reptile names and folk taxonomy in Kalam:Bulmer, RNH (1975)
Kalam Classification Of Reptiles And Fishes
''Journal of the Polynesian Society'' 84(3): 267–308. *yñ: reptiles **yñ yb: familiar small

lizard Lizards are a widespread group of squamate reptiles, with over 7,000 species, ranging across all continents except Antarctica, as well as most oceanic island chains. The group is paraphyletic since it excludes the snakes and Amphisbaenia al ...

s ***yñ ladk:

gecko Geckos are small, mostly carnivorous lizards that have a wide distribution, found on every continent except Antarctica. Belonging to the infraorder Gekkota, geckos are found in warm climates throughout the world. They range from . Geckos ar ...

***yñ yb:

****yñ yb: colonial skinks *****kls: '' Papuascincus stanleyanus'', Common skink *****mabdagol: '' Papuascincus stanleyanus'', Red-tailed skink *****mas: '' Emoia'' spp., Ant skinks (including '' E. baudini'' ost common '' E. pallidiceps'', and perhaps also '' E. kordoana'') ****yñ ladk: non-colonial skinks *****sydn: ''

Prasinohaema prehensicauda The prehensile green tree skink (''Prasinohaema prehensicauda'') is a species of skink. It is found in Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea. Green ''P. prehensicauda'' are called , while brown ones a ...

'', Casuarina skink ******sydn km: Green casuarina skink ******sydn mlep: Brown casuarina skink *****mañmod: ''

Prasinohaema flavipes The common green tree skink (''Papuascincus flavipes'') is a species of skink. It is found in Papua New Guinea. Names It is known as mañmol in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea Papua New Guinea (abbreviated PNG; , ; tpi, Papua ...

'', Tree skink *****pymakol: ''

Lobulia elegans The elegant lobulia (''Lobulia elegans'') is a species of skink found in New Guinea. It has a distinct geometric checkerboard pattern on its back. Names It is known as pymakol in the Kalam language of Papua New Guinea.Bulmer, RNH (1975)Kalam C ...

'', Beech skink *****mamŋ: ''

Sphenomorphus darlingtoni ''Sphenomorphus darlingtoni'' is a species of skink, a lizard in the family Scincidae. The species is endemic to Papua New Guinea. Etymology The specific name, ''darlingtoni'', is in honor of American entomologist Philip Jackson Darlington Jr. ...

'', Begonia skink *****komñ: ''Sphenomorphus'' sp.nr. ''jobiensis'', Bush skink *****ñgñolom: ''

Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus ''Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus'' is a species of skink. It is found in Papua New Guinea. ''Sphenomorphus leptofasciatus'' is often found in or under decaying foliage and logs. It is the only skink species that the Kalam language, Kalam people of ...

'', Banded skink *****wowy: '' Lepidodactylus'' sp., Common gecko **yñ ladk: reptiles other than familiar small lizards ***aypot: ''

Hypsilurus nigrigularis ''Hypsilurus nigrigularis'' is a species of agamid lizard. It is found in New Guinea. ''Hypsilurus nigrigularis'' is hunted by the Kalam people of Papua New Guinea, and its eggs are also consumed. The Kalam consider it to be a totemic animal. ...

'',

Dragon lizard Agamidae is a family of over 300 species of iguanian lizards indigenous to Africa, Asia, Australia, and a few in Southern Europe. Many species are commonly called dragons or dragon lizards. Overview Phylogenetically, they may be sister to the ...

***wbl: '' Varanus'' spp. ****wbl km: ''

Varanus prasinus The emerald tree monitor (''Varanus prasinus'') or green tree monitor, is a small to medium-sized arboreal monitor lizard. It is known for its unusual coloration, which consists of shades from green to turquoise, topped with dark, transverse ...

'', Emerald monitor ****wbl yb: ''

Varanus indicus The mangrove monitor, mangrove goanna, or Western Pacific monitor lizard (''Varanus indicus'') is a member of the monitor lizard family with a large distribution from northern Australia and New Guinea to the Moluccas and Solomon Islands. It grow ...

'', Water monitor ***ñom:

snake Snakes are elongated, limbless, carnivorous reptiles of the suborder Serpentes . Like all other squamates, snakes are ectothermic, amniote vertebrates covered in overlapping scales. Many species of snakes have skulls with several more j ...

s ****soyŋ; ñom: relatively harmless snakes *****klŋan: '' Chondropython viridis'', Green python *****soyŋ: ordinary snakes, ''

Tropidonophis montanus ''Tropidonophis montanus'', the North Irian montane keelback, is a species of colubrid snake. It is found in New Guinea New Guinea (; Hiri Motu Hiri Motu, also known as Police Motu, Pidgin Motu, or just Hiri, is a language of Papua New ...

'', ''

Toxicocalamus loriae ''Toxicocalamus loriae'', also known commonly as the Loria forest snake, is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to New Guinea (including some outlying islands) and occurs in both Western New Guinea (Indone ...

'', etc. ******soyŋ yb ******soyŋ pok: reddish snake ******soyŋ mosb: dark green snake ****sataw: terrifying serpents *****ymgwp: '' Python'' spp. *****nm: ''

Python amethistinus The amethystine python (''Simalia amethistina'', formerly known as ''Morelia amethistina''), also known as the scrub python or ''sanca permata'' in Indonesian, is a species of non-venomous snake in the family Pythonidae. The species is found i ...

'', Giant python *****jjoj: snake sp. *****kodkl: ''

Acanthophis laevis The smooth-scaled death adder (''Acanthophis laevis'') is a species of venomous snake in the family Elapidae. The species is endemic to Southeast Asia and Oceania. Distribution and habitat ''A. laevis'' is found in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea ...

'', Death adder (?) *****sataw: ''

Micropechis ikaheca ''Micropechis ikaheca'', commonly known as the New Guinea small-eyed snake or Ikaheka snake, is a highly venomous elapid, the only species in the genus ''Micropechis''. The holotype was collected at Doré on the Vogelkop of Netherlands New Gui ...

'', Small-eyed snake (?) *****other terrifying reptiles Frog names in Kalam are: *''

Litoria angiana The Angiana tree frog (''Litoria angiana'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is found in New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers. Description There are several diffe ...

'' (various phenotypes): komnaŋat, jejeg, (jejeg) pkay, kawag **''komnaŋat'': bright green

polymorph Polymorphism, polymorphic, polymorph, polymorphous, or polymorphy may refer to: Computing * Polymorphism (computer science), the ability in programming to present the same programming interface for differing underlying forms * Ad hoc polymorphi ...

; usually found in ''

Saurauia ''Saurauia'' is a genus of plants in the family Actinidiaceae. It comprises about over 300 species distributed in the tropics and subtropics of Asia and South and Central America. Genetic evidence and the cell biology of the group support mon ...

'' spp. and '' Ficus dammaropsis'' **''kawag'': dark green or black polymorph **''jejeg'': four types: ***''jejeg pkay'': polymorph with reddish belly ***''jejeg mj-kmab'' or ''jejeg km'': bright green polymorph ***''jejeg mlep'': dull brown polymorph ***''jejeg mosb'': black polymorph *''

Litoria arfakiana The Arfakiana tree frog (''Litoria arfakiana'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is found in New Guinea. Distribution and habitat Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropi ...

'': daŋboŋ *''

Litoria modica The Oruge tree frog (''Litoria modica'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is found in New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and rivers. Names It is known as wyt in the Kalam l ...

'' (or ''

Litoria becki Beck's tree frog (''Litoria becki'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitats are tropical moist montane forests, grasslands and streams. It was first described by the Brit ...

''): wyt *''

Litoria micromembrana The Nodugl tree frog (''Litoria micromembrana'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is found in New Guinea. Habitat Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, and heavily degraded former ...

'': kosoj *''

Litoria bulmeri Bulmer's tree frog (''Litoria bulmeri'') is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae. It is found in Papua New Guinea and possibly West Papua in Indonesia. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests and river ...

'': kogop *''

Nyctimystes disruptus ''Nyctimystes disruptus'', also known the Madang big-eyed tree frog and Richard's big-eyed tree frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae, endemic to New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane fore ...

'': kwyos, gepgep **''kiwos'': red-bellied polymorphs *''

Nyctimystes foricula ''Nyctimystes foricula'', the Kaironk big-eyed tree frog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae, endemic to Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist montane forests, rivers, rural gardens, and heavil ...

'': gojmay (also bin-pk) *'' Nyctimystes kubori'': kwelek *''

Nyctimystes narinosus ''Nyctimystes narinosus'', the common big-eyed treefrog, is a species of frog in the subfamily Pelodryadinae of the family Hylidae. It is Endemism, endemic to New Guinea and occurs in the Wahgi-Sepik Dividing Range and the Schrader Mountains, on ...

'': mabas *''

Nyctimystes ''Nyctimystes'' is a genus of tree frogs in the subfamily Pelodryadinae of the family Hylidae. They are principally Papuan species, but also inhabit islands in the Moluccas. All species in this genus have one distinct feature that separates ...

'' sp.: kabanm *''

Oxydactyla brevicrus ''Sphenophryne brevicrus'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to West Papua, Indonesia. Its natural habitat is subtropical or tropical moist montane forests. Names It is known as kabanm in the Kalam language of Papu ...

'': kabanm *''

Cophixalus parkeri ''Cophixalus parkeri'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea where it occurs in the central mountainous region between Chimbu and Morobe Provinces. The specific name ''parkeri'' presumably honours H ...

'': kabanm ature lk (including bopnm) mmature*''

Cophixalus riparius ''Cophixalus riparius'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea and occurs in the New Guinea Highlands in Madang, Southern Highlands, and Western Highlands provinces southeastward to the Morobe Prov ...

'': gwnm *''

Cophixalus shellyi ''Cophixalus shellyi'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to Papua New Guinea and occurs in the New Guinea Highlands as well as in the Adelbert Range and on the Huon Peninsula. The specific name ''shellyi'' honors F ...

'': gwnm sbmganpygak *''

Choerophryne variegata ''Choerophryne variegata'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is endemic to West Papua, Indonesia, and is only known with certainty from its type locality, Digul River. It is assumed that most records from elsewhere refer to ot ...

'': lk (including bopnm) *'' Asterophrys'' sp.: gwnm *''

Xenorhina rostrata ''Xenorhina rostrata'' is a species of frog in the family Microhylidae. It is found in West Papua in Indonesia and Papua New Guinea. Its natural habitats are subtropical or tropical moist lowland forests, subtropical or tropical moist montane fo ...

'': gwnm *'' Barygenys'' sp.: gwnm sbmganpygak *''

Papurana grisea ''Papurana grisea'' is a species of true frog. It is known with certainty only from its type locality in the Went Mountains, in the Indonesian province of Papua, New Guinea. Similar frogs are widespread in New Guinea, usually above above sea ...

'': akpt, cebs Note: ''

'', '' Choerophryne darlingtoni'', and ''

'' also tend to be identified by Kalam speakers as ''lk'' if calling from low vegetation, but as ''gwnm'' (usually applied to ''

'' and ''

'') if found in daytime hiding spots. Plant categories include: *''mon'' ‘trees and shrubs’ (excluding palms and

pandans ''Pandanus'' is a genus of monocots with some 750 accepted species. They are palm-like, dioecious trees and shrubs native to the Old World tropics and subtropics. The greatest number of species are found in Madagascar and Malaysia. Common names ...

); e.g., ''bljan'' ‘''

Macaranga ''Macaranga'' is a large genus of Old World tropical trees of the family Euphorbiaceae and the only genus in the subtribe Macaranginae (tribe Acalypheae). Native to Africa, Australasia, Asia and various islands of the Indian and Pacific Oceans ...

'' spp.’ is a ''mon'' that has four named kinds *''mñ'' ‘vines and robust creepers’ A comprehensive list of Kalam plant and animal names is given below.

Semantics

Colors

Kalam speakers distinguish more than a dozen color categories.Pawley, Andrew and Ralph Bulmer. 2011.
A Dictionary of Kalam with Ethnographic Notes
'. Canberra. Pacific Linguistics. * ‘white, light coloured’ * ‘grey, esp. of hair’ * ‘light grey; ash’ * ‘black, dark coloured’ * ‘red/purple; blood’ * ‘orange/bright reddish-brown/bright yellowish-brown/rich yellow; ripe’ * ‘rather bright red-brown/yellow brown’ * ‘yellow’ * ‘green’ * ‘pale green, yellow-green; unripe (of fruit)’ * ‘rich green, sheeny; succulent or mature (of foliage)’ * ‘dull brown, green or olive’ * ‘straw coloured; withered (of foliage)’ * ‘blue’ * ‘blue-grey, as blue-grey clay’ * ‘striped, spotted, mottled’

Time

Pawley and Bulmer (2011), quoted in Pawley and Hammarström (2018), lists the following temporal adverbs in Kalam. * ‘today’ * ‘tomorrow’ * ‘day after tomorrow’ * ‘yesterday’ * ‘day before yesterday’ * ‘3 days from today’ * ‘3 days ago’ * ‘4 days from today’ * ‘4 days ago’ * ‘5 days from today’ * ‘5 days ago’

Morphology

Rhyming compounds

Kalam, like English, has different types of rhyming compounds. ;alternating consonants *''gadal-badal'' �gándálmbándál‘placed in a disorderly manner, criss-cross, higgledy-piggledy’ *''gley-wley'' �gɨléywuléy‘rattling, clattering’ ;addition of consonants *''adk-madk'' �ndɨkmándɨk‘turned over, reversed’ *''ask-mask'' �sɨkmásɨk‘ritually restricted’ ;alternating vowels *''ñugl-ñagl'' �úŋgɨlɲáŋgɨl‘sound of evening chorus of insects and frogs’ *''gtiŋ-gtoŋ'' �gɨríŋgɨróŋ‘loud noise, din, racket’

References

Andrew Pawley Andrew Kenneth Pawley (born 1941 in Sydney), FRSNZ, FAHA, is Emeritus Professor at the School of Culture, History & Language of the ''College of Asia & the Pacific'' at the Australian National University. Career Pawley was born in Sydney b ...

and

. 2011.
A dictionary of Kalam with ethnographic notes
'. Canberra: Pacific Linguistics.