John II (; ; 3 May 1455 – 25 October 1495), called the Perfect Prince (), was

King of Portugal This is a list of Portuguese monarchs who ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of Portugal, in 1139, to the deposition of the Portuguese monarchy and creation of the Portugal, Portuguese Republic with the 5 October 1910 revolution. Thro ...

from 1481 until his death in 1495, and also for a brief time in 1477. He is known for reestablishing the power of the

Portuguese monarchy This is a list of Portuguese monarchs who ruled from the establishment of the Kingdom of Portugal, in 1139, to the deposition of the Portuguese monarchy and creation of the Portugal, Portuguese Republic with the 5 October 1910 revolution. Thro ...

, reinvigorating the economy of Portugal, and renewing the Portuguese

exploration Exploration is the process of exploring, an activity which has some Expectation (epistemic), expectation of Discovery (observation), discovery. Organised exploration is largely a human activity, but exploratory activity is common to most organis ...

Africa Africa is the world's second-largest and second-most populous continent after Asia. At about 30.3 million km2 (11.7 million square miles) including adjacent islands, it covers 20% of Earth's land area and 6% of its total surfac ...

and Asia.

Early life

Born in Lisbon on 3 May 1455, John was the second son of

Afonso V of Portugal Afonso V (; 15 January 1432 – 28 August 1481), known by the sobriquet the African (), was King of Portugal from 1438 until his death in 1481, with a brief interruption in 1477. His sobriquet refers to his military conquests in Northern Africa. ...

and

Isabella of Coimbra Infanta Isabel of Coimbra (Isabella of Portugal) (1 March 1432 – 2 December 1455) was a Portuguese infanta and Queen of Portugal as the first spouse of King Afonso V of Portugal. Life Born in Coimbra in 1432, Isabella was a daughter of the ...

. At one month old, on 25 June 1455, he was declared legitimate heir to the crown and received an oath of allegiance from the

three estates The estates of the realm, or three estates, were the broad orders of social hierarchy used in Christendom (Christian Europe) from the Middle Ages to early modern Europe. Different systems for dividing society members into estates developed and ...

. In 1468, Afonso V and

Henry IV of Castile Henry IV of Castile (Spanish language, Castilian: ''Enrique IV''; 5 January 1425 – 11 December 1474), nicknamed the Impotent, was King of Kingdom of Castile, Castile and Kingdom of León, León and the last of the weak late-medieval kings of Ca ...

attempted to arrange a double marriage in which John would marry Henry's daughter,

Joanna Joanna is a feminine given name deriving from from . Variants in English include Joan, Joann, Joanne, and Johanna. Other forms of the name in English are Jan, Jane, Janet, Janice, Jean, and Jeanne. The earliest recorded occurrence of th ...

, and Afonso would marry Henry's half-sister and heir-presumptive, Isabella of Castile. However, Isabella refused to consent to the arrangement. Instead, John married

Eleanor of Viseu '' Dona'' Eleanor of Avis ( ; 2 May 1458 – 17 November 1525), also known as Leonor de Lencastre or Eleanor of Viseu (after her father's title, Duke of Viseu), was a Portuguese '' infanta'' (princess) and queen consort of Portugal. She w ...

, his first cousin and the eldest daughter of

Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu Infante Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu and Beja (or ''Fernando,'' , 17 November 1433 – 18 September 1470) was the third son of Edward, King of Portugal and his wife Eleanor of Aragon. Biography Ferdinand was born in Almeirim on 17 November 1 ...

, on 22 January 1471.

Early campaigns

John accompanied his father in the campaigns in northern Africa and was knighted after the victory in the

Conquest of Arzila The Portuguese conquest of Asilah (; Portuguese: ''Arzila'') was a campaign led by King Afonso V in modern Morocco from the Wattasids on 24 August 1471. History Continuing with his policy of expansion of the Portuguese territories in Morocco, ...

in August 1471.

Participation in the War of the Castilian Succession

Following the death of Henry IV of Castile in December 1474 and the accession of his half-sister, Isabella, a faction of the nobility hostile to Isabella offered the Castilian crown to Afonso V, provided he wed Henry's daughter, Joanna. John urged his father to marry Joanna and invade Castile, but leading nobles, namely the

Marquis of Vila Viçosa The title Marquis of Vila Viçosa (in Portuguese ''Marquês de Vila Viçosa'') was created by royal decree, dated May 25, 1455, by King Afonso V of Portugal), to Fernando of Braganza, second son of Afonso, 1st Duke of Braganza. ''Dom'' Fernand ...

, opposed this conviction. Afonso sent an envoy to assess support for Joanna's cause and after receiving "favorable accounts respecting the partisans of the Infanta", he ordered war preparations to be made for the following spring. On 12 May 1475, Afonso and John entered Castile with an army of 5,600 cavalry and 14,000 foot soldiers. Afonso V proceeded to

Palencia Palencia () is a city of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is the capital and most populated municipality of the province of Palencia. Located in the northwest of the Iberian Peninsula, in the northern half of ...

to meet Joanna while John returned home to govern the kingdom. On May 25, Joanna and Afonso were betrothed and proclaimed sovereigns of Castile. In the same month, John's wife, Eleanor, gave birth to the couple's only child to survive infancy,

Afonso Afonso is the Portuguese and Galician form of Alphons. Middle Ages Iberian royal families ;Portugal *Afonso I of Portugal (1109–1185) *Afonso II of Portugal (1185–1223) *Afonso III of Portugal (1210–1279) *Afonso IV of Portugal (1291� ...

. In late 1475, Afonso, with only a fragment of his army remaining, wrote letters to John imploring him to provide reinforcements. John raised an army and left for Castile again in January 1476, appointing Eleanor regent of the kingdom. In March 1476, at

Toro Toro may refer to: Places *Toro, Molise, a ''comune'' in the Province of Campobasso, Italy *Toro, Nigeria, a Local Government Area of Bauchi State, Nigeria *Toro, Shizuoka, an archaeological site in Shizuoka Prefecture, Japan *Toro, Zamora, a ''m ...

, Afonso V and John and some 8,000 men faced Castilian forces of similar size led by Isabella's husband, Ferdinand of Aragon, Cardinal Mendoza and the

Duke of Alba Duke of Alba de Tormes (), commonly known as Duke of Alba, is a title of Spanish nobility that is accompanied by the dignity of Grandee of Spain. In 1472, the title of ''Count of Alba de Tormes'', inherited by García Álvarez de Toledo, wa ...

. King Afonso V was beaten by the left and center of King Ferdinand's army and fled from the battlefield. John defeated the Castilian right wing, recovered the lost Portuguese Royal standard, and held the field, but overall the battle was indecisive. Despite its uncertain outcome, the

Battle of Toro The Battle of Toro was part of the War of the Castilian Succession, fought on 1 March 1476, near the city of Toro, between the Castilian-Aragonese troops of the Catholic Monarchs and the Portuguese-Castilian forces of Afonso V and Prince Joh ...

represented a great political victory _↓ Spanish academic António M. Serrano: ''" From all of this it is deductible that the battle '' f Toro/nowiki>'' was inconclusive, but Isabella and Ferdinand made it fly with wings of victory. (...) Actually, since this battle transformed in victory; since 1 March 1476, Isabella and Ferdinand started to rule in the Spain's throne. (...) The inconclusive wings of the battle became the secure and powerful wings of San Juan's eagle'' he commemorative temple of the Battle of Toro/nowiki>'' ."'' i
''San Juan de los Reyes y la batalla de Toro''
revist
Toletum
, segunda época, 1979 (9)
pp. 55–70
. Real Academia de Bellas Artes y Ciencias Históricas de Toledo, Toledo.

ISSN An International Standard Serial Number (ISSN) is an eight-digit to uniquely identify a periodical publication (periodical), such as a magazine. The ISSN is especially helpful in distinguishing between serials with the same title. ISSNs a ...

0210-6310
_↓ A. Ballesteros Beretta: ''"His moment is the inconclusive Battle of Toro.(...) both sides attributed themselves the victory.... The letters written by the King '' erdinand/nowiki>'' to the main cities... are a model of skill. (...) what a powerful description of the battle! The nebulous transforms into light, the doubtful acquires the profile of a certain triumph. The politic '' erdinand/nowiki>'' achieved the fruits of a discussed victory."'' I
''Fernando el Católico, el mejor rey de España''
''Ejército'' revue, nr 16, p. 56, May 1941. _↓ Vicente Álvarez Palenzuela
''La guerra civil Castellana y el enfrentamiento con Portugal (1475–1479)''
''"That is the battle of Toro. The Portuguese army had not been exactly defeated, however, the sensation was that D. Juana's cause had completely sunk. It made sense that for the Castilians Toro was considered as the divine retribution, the compensation desired by God to compensate the terrible disaster of

Aljubarrota Aljubarrota () is a ''freguesia'' ("civil parish") in the municipality of Alcobaça, Portugal. It was formed in 2013 by the merger of the parishes of Prazeres and São Vicente. Its population in 2011 was 6,639 _↓ Spanish academic Rafael Dominguez Casas: ''"...San Juan de los Reyes resulted from the royal will to build a monastery to commemorate the victory in a battle with an uncertain outcome but decisive, the one fought in Toro in 1476, which consolidated the union of the two most important Peninsular Kingdoms."'' I
''San Juan de los reyes: espacio funerário y aposento régio''
in ''Boletín del Seminário de Estúdios de Arte y Arqueologia'', number 56, p. 364, 1990. for Isabella and Ferdinand and Afonso's prospects for obtaining the Castilian crown were severely damaged. John promptly returned to Portugal to disband the remnants of his army, arriving the first week of April.

De facto rule

Months after the Battle of Toro, in August 1476, Afonso V travelled to France hoping to obtain the assistance of King

Louis XI Louis XI (3 July 1423 – 30 August 1483), called "Louis the Prudent" (), was King of France from 1461 to 1483. He succeeded his father, Charles VII. Louis entered into open rebellion against his father in a short-lived revolt known as the ...

in his fight against Castile. In September 1477, disheartened that his efforts to secure support had proved fruitless, Afonso abdicated the throne and embarked on a pilgrimage to Jerusalem. He was eventually persuaded to return to Portugal, where he arrived in November 1477. John had been proclaimed king days prior to Afonso's arrival, but relinquished his new title and insisted that his father reassume the crown. From 1477 to 1481, John and Afonso V were "practically corulers." John, given control of overseas policy in 1474 and concerned with consolidating Portuguese control of Africa, played a major role in negotiating the Treaty of Alcáçovas (1479) with Spain that concluded the War of the Castilian Succession and ensured Portugal hegemony in the Atlantic south of the

Canary Islands The Canary Islands (; ) or Canaries are an archipelago in the Atlantic Ocean and the southernmost Autonomous communities of Spain, Autonomous Community of Spain. They are located in the northwest of Africa, with the closest point to the cont ...

. The treaty also arranged for the marriage of John's son, Afonso, to the eldest daughter of the Catholic Monarchs,

Isabella Isabella may refer to: People and fictional characters * Isabella (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters * Isabella (surname), including a list of people Places United States * Isabella, Alabama, an unincorpo ...

. Following his father's death on 28 August 1481, John was proclaimed King of Portugal and crowned at

Sintra Sintra (, ), officially the Town of Sintra (), is a town and municipality in the Greater Lisbon region of Portugal, located on the Portuguese Riviera. The population of the municipality in 2021 was 385,654, in an area of . Sintra is one of the ...

on 31 August.

Reign

Consolidation of power

accession to the throne, John strived to diminish the power and influence of the nobility that had greatly accumulated during his father's reign. In 1481, he assembled the

Cortes Cortes, Cortés, Cortês, Corts, or Cortès may refer to: People * Cortes (surname), including a list of people with the name ** Hernán Cortés (1485–1547), a Spanish conquistador Places * Cortes, Navarre, a village in the South border of ...

in Evora and held a grand oath-taking ceremony in which magnates and other subjects were required to swear allegiance to him as their unequivocal superior. The ceremony was perceived as humiliating by members of the upper nobility who were accustomed to the feudal tradition of acknowledging the king as simply first among equals. At the Cortes, John further enraged nobles by declaring that property title deeds would undergo examination to ensure their validity, as opposed to being confirmed in mass. After representatives of commoners voiced grievances concerning abuses committed by the nobility and clergy, he deprived nobles of their right to administer justice on their estates, instead authorizing crown officials or

corregedor The Corregedor (''Inspector-General'' or ''Magistrate'') was a position established by the Portuguese crown in the 14th-15th century, with the authority to "correct" acts of a local, administrative or judicial nature within the kingdom. Although c ...

s to inspect and dispense justice throughout the realm. Such aggressive assertions of royal supremacy roused resentment amongst the nobility. By 1482, Fernando, Duke of Braganza, the wealthiest nobleman in Portugal, and his followers had begun conspiring for John's deposition, allegedly receiving support from the

Catholic Monarchs The Catholic Monarchs were Isabella I of Castile, Queen Isabella I of Crown of Castile, Castile () and Ferdinand II of Aragon, King Ferdinand II of Crown of Aragón, Aragon (), whose marriage and joint rule marked the ''de facto'' unification of ...

. John responded by having Fernando arrested, tried and convicted of twenty-two counts of treason, and publicly beheaded in June 1483. Afterwards, the assets of the

House of Braganza The Most Serene House of Braganza (), also known as the Brigantine dynasty (''dinastia Brigantina''), is a dynasty of emperors, kings, princes, and dukes of Portuguese people, Portuguese origin which reigned in Europe and the Americas. The hous ...

were confiscated and the family fled to Castile. Braganza's execution caused even more intrigue among the upper-nobility, who rallied behind

Diogo, Duke of Viseu Infante Diogo of Viseu (1450–1484) was the second son of Ferdinand, Duke of Viseu, and his wife Beatriz, Duchess of Viseu. History Diogo's father, uncle of King John II, was believed to be the richest man in Portugal, having accumulated tw ...

, John's cousin and brother to his Queen Consort, Eleanor. In September 1484, John summoned Diogo to his private chambers, confronted him with evidence of treason, and stabbed him to death. Other ringleaders involved in the plot were persecuted. Ultimately, John succeeded in enriching the Crown by executing or exiling most of Portugal's feudal lords and confiscating their estates. For the rest of his reign, he kept the creation of titles to a bare minimum.

Economy and administration

Under John's direction, commercial activity in Africa became a crown monopoly. The immense profits generated by African ventures enabled the king to fund exploration expeditions, reduce his reliance on the cortes for financial support, and strengthen the monarchy's power over the nobility. John established a new

court A court is an institution, often a government entity, with the authority to adjudicate legal disputes between Party (law), parties and Administration of justice, administer justice in Civil law (common law), civil, Criminal law, criminal, an ...

called the Mesa or Tribunal do Desembargo do Paco to supervise petitions for pardon, privileges, freedoms, and legislation. He also instituted annual elections for the judges, clerks, and hospital stewards under federal jurisdiction. His attempts to centralize hospitals across Portugal were not implemented fully but paved the way for the radical reforms introduced during the reign of Manuel I.

Exploration

John II famously restored the policies of

Atlantic The Atlantic Ocean is the second largest of the world's five oceanic divisions, with an area of about . It covers approximately 17% of Earth's surface and about 24% of its water surface area. During the Age of Discovery, it was known for se ...

exploration, reviving and broadening the work of his great-uncle,

Henry the Navigator Princy Henry of Portugal, Duke of Viseu ( Portuguese: ''Infante Dom Henrique''; 4 March 1394 – 13 November 1460), better known as Prince Henry the Navigator (), was a Portuguese prince and a central figure in the early days of the Portuguese ...

. The Portuguese explorations were his main priority in government, patronising both local and foreign men, such as João Afonso de Aveiro and

Martin Behaim Martin Behaim (6 October 1459 – 29 July 1507), also known as and by various forms of , was a German textile merchant and cartographer. He served John II of Portugal as an adviser in matters of navigation and participated in a voyage to Wes ...

, to further his goals. Portuguese explorers pushed south along the known coast of Africa with the purpose of discovering the maritime route to India and breaking into the

spice trade The spice trade involved historical civilizations in Asia, Northeast Africa and Europe. Spices, such as cinnamon, cassia, cardamom, ginger, pepper, nutmeg, star anise, clove, and turmeric, were known and used in antiquity and traded in t ...

. During John II's reign, the following achievements were realised: * 1482 – Foundation of the coastal fortress and trade post of São Jorge da Mina. * 1484 – Discovery of the

Congo River The Congo River, formerly also known as the Zaire River, is the second-longest river in Africa, shorter only than the Nile, as well as the third-largest river in the world list of rivers by discharge, by discharge volume, following the Amazon Ri ...

Diogo Cão Diogo Cão (; – 1486), also known as Diogo Cam, was a Portuguese mariner and one of the most notable explorers of the fifteenth century. He made two voyages along the west coast of Africa in the 1480s, exploring the Congo River and the coasts ...

. * 1488 – Discovery and passage of the

Cape of Good Hope The Cape of Good Hope ( ) is a rocky headland on the Atlantic Ocean, Atlantic coast of the Cape Peninsula in South Africa. A List of common misconceptions#Geography, common misconception is that the Cape of Good Hope is the southern tip of Afri ...

Bartolomeu Dias Bartolomeu Dias ( – 29 May 1500) was a Portuguese mariner and explorer. In 1488, he became the first European navigator to round the Cape Agulhas, southern tip of Africa and to demonstrate that the most effective southward route for ships lies ...

Mossel Bay Mossel Bay () is a harbour town of about 170,000 people on the Garden Route of South Africa. It is an important tourism and farming region of the Western Cape Province. Mossel Bay lies 400 kilometres east of the country's seat of parliament, Ca ...

. * 1493 – Start of the settlement of the

São Tomé and Príncipe São Tomé and Príncipe, officially the Democratic Republic of São Tomé and Príncipe, is an island country in the Gulf of Guinea, off the western equatorial coast of Central Africa. It consists of two archipelagos around the two main isla ...

islands by

Álvaro Caminha Álvaro Caminha was appointed by King John II of Portugal in 1492 Captain-major (governor) – the third – of the Portuguese colony of São Tomé and Príncipe which had been discovered 22 years earlier. He was a knight of the king's household ...

. * Funding of land expeditions by Afonso de Paiva and

Pêro da Covilhã Pêro da Covilhã (; c. 1460 – after 1526), sometimes written Pero de Covilhã, was a Portuguese diplomat and explorer. He was a native of Covilhã in Beira, Portugal, Beira. In his early life he had gone to Crown of Castile, Castile and e ...

to India and

Ethiopia Ethiopia, officially the Federal Democratic Republic of Ethiopia, is a landlocked country located in the Horn of Africa region of East Africa. It shares borders with Eritrea to the north, Djibouti to the northeast, Somalia to the east, Ken ...

in search of the kingdom of

Prester John Prester John () was a mythical Christian patriarch, presbyter, and king. Stories popular in Europe in the 12th to the 17th centuries told of a Church of the East, Nestorian patriarch and king who was said to rule over a Christian state, Christian ...

. In 1484, John appointed a Maritime Advisory Committee, the ''Junta dos Mathematicos'', to supervise navigational efforts and provide explorers with charts and instruments. Around the same time,

Christopher Columbus Christopher Columbus (; between 25 August and 31 October 1451 – 20 May 1506) was an Italians, Italian explorer and navigator from the Republic of Genoa who completed Voyages of Christopher Columbus, four Spanish-based voyages across the At ...

proposed his planned voyage to John. The king relegated Columbus's proposal to the Committee, who rejected it, correctly, on the grounds that Columbus's estimate for a voyage of 2,400 nmi was only a quarter of what it should have been. In 1488, Columbus again appealed to the court of Portugal, and John II again granted him an audience. That meeting also proved unsuccessful, in part because not long afterwards

returned to Portugal with news of his successful rounding of the southern tip of Africa (near the

). Columbus then sought an audience with the

and eventually secured their support.

Conflict with Castile

While returning home from his first voyage early in 1493, Columbus was driven by storm into the port of Lisbon. John II welcomed him warmly but asserted that under the Treaty of Alcáçovas previously signed with Spain, Columbus's discoveries lay within Portugal's sphere of influence. The king then prepared a fleet under

Francisco de Almeida '' Dom'' Francisco de Almeida (; c. 1450 – 1 March 1510), was a Portuguese nobleman, soldier and explorer. He distinguished himself as a counsellor to King John II of Portugal and later in the wars against the Moors and in the conquest of Gran ...

to claim the new islands. Anxious to avoid war, the Catholic Monarchs arranged negotiations in the small Spanish town of

Tordesillas Tordesillas () is a town and municipality in the province of Valladolid, Castile and León, central Spain. It is located southwest of the provincial capital, Valladolid at an elevation of . The population was c. 8,760 . The town is located on ...

. The result of this meeting would be the famous

Treaty of Tordesillas The Treaty of Tordesillas, signed in Tordesillas, Spain, on 7 June 1494, and ratified in Setúbal, Portugal, divided the newly discovered lands outside Europe between the Kingdom of Portugal and the Crown of Castile, along a meridian (geography) ...

, which sought to divide all newly discovered lands in the New World between Spain and Portugal.

Religious policy

John sanctioned several anti-Jewish laws at the behest of parliamentary representatives, including restrictions on Jewish clothing and the emancipation of Christian converts owned by Jews. However, the king's personal attitude towards Portuguese Jews has been described as pragmatic, as he valued their economic contributions and defended them against unjust harassment. After the

expelled Jews from Castile and Aragon in 1492, John authorized the admission of tens of thousands of Jews into Portugal at the price of eight cruzados a head but refused to let them stay longer than eight months. Of the some 20,000 families that entered Portugal, only 600 of the most affluent Castilian Jewish families succeeded in obtaining permanent residence permits. Jews unable to leave the country within the specified interval (often the result of poverty) were reduced to slavery and were not liberated until the reign of John's successor, Manuel. Many children of the enslaved Castilian Jews were seized from their parents and deported to the African island of

São Tomé São Tomé is the capital and largest city of the Central African island country of São Tomé and Príncipe. Its name is Portuguese for " Saint Thomas". Founded in the 15th century, it is one of Africa's oldest colonial cities. History Álv ...

in order to be raised there as Christians and serve as colonists.

Succession and death

In July 1491, John's only legitimate child, Prince Afonso, died in a horse accident, confronting Portugal with a succession crisis. The king wanted his illegitimate son

Jorge Jorge is the Spanish and Portuguese form of the given name George. While spelled alike, this name is pronounced very differently in each of the two languages: Spanish ; Portuguese . It is derived from the Greek name Γεώργιος (''Georgios ...

to succeed him but Queen Eleanor was intent on securing succession for her younger brother Manuel, the legal heir presumptive. Following bitter disputes with Eleanor and a failed petition to Rome to have Jorge legitimized, John finally recognized Manuel as his heir in his will while on his deathbed in September 1495. John died of

dropsy Edema (American English), also spelled oedema (British English), and also known as fluid retention, swelling, dropsy and hydropsy, is the build-up of fluid in the body's tissue. Most commonly, the legs or arms are affected. Symptoms may inclu ...

at Alvor on 25 October 1495 and was succeeded by

Manuel I Manuel I may refer to: *Manuel I Komnenos Manuel I Komnenos (; 28 November 1118 – 24 September 1180), Latinized as Comnenus, also called Porphyrogenitus (; " born in the purple"), was a Byzantine emperor of the 12th century who reigned ov ...

. He was initially interred at the Silves Cathedral, but his remains were transferred to the

Monastery of Batalha The Monastery of Batalha () is a Dominican convent in the municipality of Batalha, historical Beira Litoral province, in the Centro of Portugal. Originally, and officially, known as the ''Monastery of Saint Mary of the Victory'' (), it was erec ...

in 1499.

Legacy

The nickname ''the Perfect Prince'' is a posthumous appellation that is intended to refer to

Niccolò Machiavelli Niccolò di Bernardo dei Machiavelli (3 May 1469 – 21 June 1527) was a Florentine diplomat, author, philosopher, and historian who lived during the Italian Renaissance. He is best known for his political treatise '' The Prince'' (), writte ...

's work ''

The Prince ''The Prince'' ( ; ) is a 16th-century political treatise written by the Italian diplomat, philosopher, and Political philosophy, political theorist Niccolò Machiavelli in the form of a realistic instruction guide for new Prince#Prince as gener ...

''. John II is considered to have lived his life exactly according to the writer's idea of a perfect prince. Nevertheless, he was admired as one of the greatest European monarchs of his time.

Isabella I of Castile Isabella I (; 22 April 1451 – 26 November 1504), also called Isabella the Catholic (Spanish: ''Isabel la Católica''), was Queen of Castile and List of Leonese monarchs, León from 1474 until her death in 1504. She was also Queen of Aragon ...

often referred to him as (The Man). The Italian scholar

Poliziano Agnolo (or Angelo) Ambrogini (; 14 July 1454 – 24 September 1494), commonly known as Angelo Poliziano () or simply Poliziano, anglicized as Politian, was an Italian classical scholar and poet of the Florentine Renaissance. His scholars ...

wrote a letter to John II that paid him a profound homage: :to render you thanks on behalf of all who belong to this century, which now favours of your quasi-divine merits, now boldly competing with ancient centuries and all Antiquity. Indeed, Poliziano considered his achievements to be more meritorious than those of

Alexander the Great Alexander III of Macedon (; 20/21 July 356 BC – 10/11 June 323 BC), most commonly known as Alexander the Great, was a king of the Ancient Greece, ancient Greek kingdom of Macedonia (ancient kingdom), Macedon. He succeeded his father Philip ...

Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...

. He offered to write an epic work giving an account of John II accomplishments in navigation and conquests. The king replied in a positive manner in a letter of 23 October 1491, but delayed the commission. (Translation of the latin by

Teófilo Braga Joaquim Teófilo Fernandes Braga (February 24, 1843January 28, 1924) was the 2nd president of Portugal, serving in 1915. A Portuguese writer, playwright, politician he became the leader of the Republican Provisional Government after the overthro ...

)'' "render-vos graças em nome de todos quantos pertencemos a este século, o qual agora, por favor dos vossos méritos quasi-divinos, ousa já denodadamente competir com os vetustos séculos e com toda a antiguidade."''

In popular culture

* In the TV series ''

'' (1985) he is played by

Max von Sydow Max von Sydow (; born Carl Adolf von Sydow; 10 April 1929 – 8 March 2020) was a Swedish and French actor. He had a 70-year career in European and American cinema, television, and theatre, appearing in more than 150 films and several television ...

. * In the film '' Christopher Columbus: The Discovery'' (1992) he is played by

Mathieu Carrière Mathieu Carrière (; born 2 August 1950) is a German stage and screen actor with strong French connections. He has appeared in around 250 films worldwide and in 4000 hours of television. Carrière is also a director and a writer and is known as a ...

. * He appears in ''

Civilization IV ''Civilization IV'' (also known as ''Sid Meier's Civilization IV'') is a 2005 4X turn-based strategy video game developed by Firaxis Games and published by 2K. It is the fourth installment of the ''Civilization'' series and was designed by S ...

'' (as João II), leading the Portuguese. * In the TV series ''

Isabel Isabel is a female name of Iberian origin. Isabelle is a name that is similar, but it is of French origin. It originates as the medieval Spanish form of ''Elizabeth (given name), Elisabeth'' (ultimately Hebrew ''Elisheba''). Arising in the 12th c ...

'' played by Álvaro Monje

Marriage and descendants

Ancestry

Notes

References

Citations

Sources

* * * * * * * * * 3rd printing of the 1959 ed. with a new preface. * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * * {{DEFAULTSORT:John 02 of Portugal 1455 births 1495 deaths 15th-century Portuguese monarchs House of Aviz Knights of the Garter Maritime history of Portugal Nobility from Lisbon Portuguese infantes Portuguese Roman Catholics Princes of Portugal Portuguese exploration in the Age of Discovery