José Bergamín Gutiérrez (

Madrid Madrid ( ; ) is the capital and List of largest cities in Spain, most populous municipality of Spain. It has almost 3.5 million inhabitants and a Madrid metropolitan area, metropolitan area population of approximately 7 million. It i ...

, 1895 –

Hondarribia Hondarribia (; ; ) is a Spanish town situated on the west shore of the Bidasoa river's estuary, in Gipuzkoa, in the Basque Country (autonomous community), Basque Autonomous Community. The border town is situated on a little promontory facing Hend ...

, 28 August 1983) was a Spanish writer, essayist, poet, and playwright. His father served as president of the canton of

Málaga Málaga (; ) is a Municipalities in Spain, municipality of Spain, capital of the Province of Málaga, in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. With a population of 591,637 in 2024, it is the second-most populo ...

; his mother was a

Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...

. Bergamín was influenced by both politics and religion and attempted to reconcile

Communism Communism () is a political sociology, sociopolitical, political philosophy, philosophical, and economic ideology, economic ideology within the history of socialism, socialist movement, whose goal is the creation of a communist society, a ...

and Catholicism throughout his life, remarking "I would die supporting the Communists, but no further than that."

Early life and career

He studied law at the Universidad Central and his first articles appeared in the periodical ''Índice'', edited by

Juan Ramón Jiménez Juan Ramón Jiménez Mantecón (; 23 December 1881 – 29 May 1958) was a Spanish poet, a prolific writer who received the 1956 Nobel Prize in Literature "for his lyrical poetry, which in the Spanish language constitutes an example of high ...

, in 1921 and 1922. Bergamín's friendship with Jiménez would be as strong as the one he maintained with

Miguel de Unamuno Miguel de Unamuno y Jugo (; ; 29 September 1864 – 31 December 1936) was a Spanish essayist, novelist, poet, playwright, philosopher, professor of Greek and Classics, and later rector at the University of Salamanca. His major philosophical ...

, who served as an inspiration for Bergamín. Bergamín's writings for ''Índice'' would make him part of the

Generation of '27 The Generation of '27 () was an influential group of poets that arose in Spain, Spanish literary circles between 1923 and 1927, essentially out of a shared desire to experience and work with avant-garde forms of art and poetry. Their first form ...

(he preferred the term “Generation of the

Republic A republic, based on the Latin phrase ''res publica'' ('public affair' or 'people's affair'), is a State (polity), state in which Power (social and political), political power rests with the public (people), typically through their Representat ...

”), although scholars also place him in the earlier Generation of 1914 or a member of the movement known as '' Novecentismo''. However, his activities were very much an integral part of the Generation of '27, and he collaborated in all of the publications of this group, and served as editor of its various books. He is also considered Unamuno's principal disciple and one of the best Spanish essayists of the 20th century, with his themes covering everything from literary myths to the Golden Age of Spain, from

mysticism Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute (philosophy), Absolute, but may refer to any kind of Religious ecstasy, ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or Spirituality, spiritual meani ...

to politics, from Spain itself to

bullfighting Bullfighting is a physical contest that involves a bullfighter attempting to subdue, immobilize, or kill a bull, usually according to a set of rules, guidelines, or cultural expectations. There are several variations, including some forms wh ...

. An opponent of the regime of

Miguel Primo de Rivera Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, 2nd Marquis of Estella, Grandee, GE (8 January 1870 – 16 March 1930), was a Spanish dictator and military officer who ruled as prime minister of Spain from 1923 to 1930 during the last years of the Resto ...

, Bergamín participated in a political gathering in

Salamanca Salamanca () is a Municipality of Spain, municipality and city in Spain, capital of the Province of Salamanca, province of the same name, located in the autonomous community of Castile and León. It is located in the Campo Charro comarca, in the ...

together with Unamuno in support of republican ideals. He also served briefly as General Director of Insurance in the Ministry of Labor during the administration of Prime Minister

Francisco Largo Caballero Francisco Largo Caballero (15 October 1869 – 23 March 1946) was a Spanish politician and trade unionist who served as the prime minister of the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War. He was one of the historic leaders of the ...

. In 1933, he founded and served as editor of the periodical ''

Cruz y Raya Cruz is mostly a surname but is also used as a first name. It is of Iberian Peninsula, Iberian origin, first found in Castile (historical region), Castile, Spain, and later spread throughout the territories of the former Spanish Empire, Spanish ...

'', to which numerous authors of the Generation of ’27 contributed. The last issue of ''Cruz y Raya'', number 39, appeared in June 1936, a few days before the military uprising that would lead to the

Spanish Civil War The Spanish Civil War () was a military conflict fought from 1936 to 1939 between the Republican faction (Spanish Civil War), Republicans and the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalists. Republicans were loyal to the Left-wing p ...

Career during the Spanish Civil War

During the Spanish Civil War, Bergamín presided over the Alliance of Anti-Fascist Intellectuals (''

Alianza de Intelectuales Antifascistas The Alliance of Antifascist Intellectuals for the Defense of Culture (''Alianza de Intelectuales Antifascistas para la Defensa de la Cultura'') was a civil organization created on July 30, 1936, after the Spanish Civil War began. It had its initia ...

'') and was named cultural attaché for the government-in-exile in

Paris Paris () is the Capital city, capital and List of communes in France with over 20,000 inhabitants, largest city of France. With an estimated population of 2,048,472 residents in January 2025 in an area of more than , Paris is the List of ci ...

, where he looked for moral and financial support for the Spanish Republic. Bergamín contributed to the periodicals '' El Mono Azul'', '' Hora de España'' and ''Cuadernos de Madrid''. In 1937, he presided over, at

Valencia Valencia ( , ), formally València (), is the capital of the Province of Valencia, province and Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Valencian Community, the same name in Spain. It is located on the banks of the Turia (r ...

, the second International Congress of Writers in Defense of Culture (''Congreso Internacional de Escritores en Defensa de la Cultura''), which gathered together more than a hundred intellectuals from all over the world.

Exile

With the victory of

Francisco Franco Francisco Franco Bahamonde (born Francisco Paulino Hermenegildo Teódulo Franco Bahamonde; 4 December 1892 – 20 November 1975) was a Spanish general and dictator who led the Nationalist faction (Spanish Civil War), Nationalist forces i ...

over the Republican forces, Bergamín went into exile, taking with him a copy of Federico García Lorca's '' Poeta en Nueva York''. Bergamín would serve as editor of this work by Lorca. Bergamín went first to

Mexico Mexico, officially the United Mexican States, is a country in North America. It is the northernmost country in Latin America, and borders the United States to the north, and Guatemala and Belize to the southeast; while having maritime boundar ...

and then to

Venezuela Venezuela, officially the Bolivarian Republic of Venezuela, is a country on the northern coast of South America, consisting of a continental landmass and many Federal Dependencies of Venezuela, islands and islets in the Caribbean Sea. It com ...

and

Uruguay Uruguay, officially the Oriental Republic of Uruguay, is a country in South America. It shares borders with Argentina to its west and southwest and Brazil to its north and northeast, while bordering the Río de la Plata to the south and the A ...

, and finally to

France France, officially the French Republic, is a country located primarily in Western Europe. Overseas France, Its overseas regions and territories include French Guiana in South America, Saint Pierre and Miquelon in the Atlantic Ocean#North Atlan ...

. In Mexico, he founded the magazine ''España peregrina'', an organ for exiled Spanish writers, and the publishing house Editorial Séneca, which would first publish the complete works of

Antonio Machado Antonio Cipriano José María y Francisco de Santa Ana Machado y Ruiz (26 July 1875 – 22 February 1939), known as Antonio Machado, was a Spanish poet and one of the leading figures of the Spanish literary movement known as the Generation ...

, as well as the work of

Rafael Alberti Rafael Alberti Merello (16 December 1902 – 28 October 1999) was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of '27. He is considered one of the greatest literary figures of the so-called ''Silver Age'' of Spanish Literature, and he won numer ...

César Vallejo César Abraham Vallejo Mendoza (March 16, 1892 – April 15, 1938) was a Peruvian poet, writer, playwright, and journalist. Although he published only two books of poetry during his lifetime, he is considered one of the great poetic innovators ...

, Lorca, and

Luis Cernuda Luis Cernuda Bidón (September 21, 1902 – November 5, 1963) was a Spanish poet, a member of the Generation of '27. During the Spanish Civil War, in early 1938, he went to the UK to deliver some lectures and this became the start of an exile ...

, among others.

Luis Buñuel Luis Buñuel Portolés (; 22 February 1900 – 29 July 1983) was a Spanish and Mexican filmmaker who worked in France, Mexico and Spain. He has been widely considered by many film critics, historians and directors to be one of the greatest and ...

's ''

The Exterminating Angel ''The Exterminating Angel'' () is a 1962 Mexican surrealism, surrealist black comedy film written and directed by Luis Buñuel. Starring Silvia Pinal and produced by Pinal's then-husband Gustavo Alatriste, the film tells the story of a group of ...

'' was based on an unfinished play Bergamín had written. From 1955 to 1957,

Aurora de Albornoz Aurora de Albornoz (January 22, 1926 – June 6, 1990) was born in Luarca, Asturias, Spain. As a youth, she lived in Luarca with her parents, sister, and extended family, throughout the Spanish Civil War from 1936 to 1939— an event that ins ...

studied in Paris with Bergamín.

Return to Spain

He returned to Spain in 1958, but was arrested for his previous activities as an opponent of the Nationalists during the Civil War. He was forced to go into exile again in 1963 after his apartment was burned down by his enemies, and also because he had signed a manifesto with more than 100 other intellectuals addressed to

Manuel Fraga Iribarne Manuel Fraga Iribarne (; 23 November 1922 – 15 January 2012) was a Spanish professor and politician during the dictatorship of Francisco Franco, who was also one of the founders of the People's Alliance (AP). Fraga was Minister of Informatio ...

that denounced the regime’s use of torture and repression against the miners of

Asturias Asturias (; ; ) officially the Principality of Asturias, is an autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community in northwest Spain. It is coextensive with the provinces of Spain, province of Asturias and contains some of the territory t ...

. He returned for good in 1970, settling in

and becoming a political opponent of what he perceived were the shady deals behind the

Spanish transition to democracy The Spanish transition to democracy, known in Spain as (; ) or (), is a period of History of Spain, modern Spanish history encompassing the regime change that moved from the Francoist dictatorship to the consolidation of a parliamentary system ...

(''La Transición''), and was expelled as a writer from various newspapers. He was a republican in the first democratic elections after the transition and published the manifesto ''Error monarquía''. At the end of his life, he lived in the Basque Country, where he served as a collaborator in the newspaper '' Egin'' and the periodical '' Punto y Hora de Euskal Herria'', where he became a firm political supporter of the

Abertzale ''Abertzale'' (; English: "patriot", literally "fond of the fatherland") is a Basque term usually referring to people or political groups who are associated with Basque nationalism. Although the term is a synonym of "patriot", its common use in ...

Left. He was buried at Hondarribia due to the fact that “he did not want to give his bones to Spanish earth,” since Hondarribia is part of the Basque Country.

Works

*''El cohete y la estrella'' Madrid; Índice, 1923. *': (I-XXX), 1926 *''El arte de birlibirloque; La estatua de Don Tancredo; El mundo por montera'' Santiago de Chile; Madrid: Cruz del Sur, 1961. *''Ilustración y defensa del toreo'' Torremolinos: Litoral, 1974. *''Mangas y capirotes: (España en su laberinto teatral del XVII)'' Madrid: Plutarco, 1933. Segunda edición Buenos Aires, Argos, 1950. *''El cohete y la estrella; La cabeza a pájaros'' Madrid: Cátedra, 1981. *''La más leve idea de Lope'' Madrid: Ediciones del Árbol, 1936. *''Presencia de espíritu'' Madrid: Ediciones del Árbol, 1936. *''El alma en un hilo'' éxico, D.F. Séneca, 1940. *''Detrás de la cruz: terrorismo y persecución religiosa en España'' México: Séneca, (1941) *''El pozo de la angustia'' Barcelona: Anthropos, 1985. *''La voz apagada: (Dante dantesco y otros ensayos)'' Mexico: Editora Central, 1945. *''La corteza de la letra: (palabras desnudas)'' Buenos Aires: Losada, 1957. *''Lázaro, Don Juan y Segismundo'' Madrid: Taurus, 1959. *''Fronteras infernales de la poesía'' Madrid : Taurus, 1959. *''La decadencia del analfabetismo; La importancia del demonio'' Santiago de Chile; Madrid: Cruz del Sur, 1961. *''Al volver'' Barcelona: Seix Barral, 1962. *''Beltenebros y otros ensayos sobre literatura española'' Barcelona [etc.? : Noguer, 1973. *''De una España peregrina'' Madrid: Al-Borak, 1972. *''El clavo ardiendo'' Barcelona: Aymá, 1974. *''La importancia del demonio y otras cosas sin importancia'' Madrid: Júcar, 1974. *''El pensamiento perdido: páginas de guerra y del destierro'' Madrid: Adra, 1976. *''Calderón y cierra España y otros ensayos disparatados'' Barcelona: Planeta, 1979. *''La música callada del toreo'' Madrid : Turner, 1989. *''Aforismos de la cabeza parlante''. Madrid : Turner, 1983. *''La claridad del toreo'' Madrid: Turner, 1987. *''Al fin y al cabo: (prosas)'' Madrid : Alianza, 1981. *''Cristal del tiempo'' Hondarribia: Hiru, 1995. *''El pensamiento de un esqueleto: antología periodística'' Torremolinos: Litoral, 1984. *''Prólogos epilogales'' Valencia: Pre-Textos, 1985. *''Escritos en Euskal Herria'' Tafalla: Txalaparta, 1995. *''Las ideas liebres: aforística y epigramática, 1935-1981'' Barcelona: Destino, 1998. *''Enemigo que huye: Polifemo y Coloquio espiritual (1925-1926)'' Madrid: Biblioteca Nueva, 1927. *''La risa en los huesos'' Madrid : Nostromo, 1973. Contiene: ''Tres escenas en ángulo recto'' y ''Enemigo que huye'' *''La hija de Dios; y La niña guerrillera'' México: Manuel Altoaguirre, 1945. *''Los filólogos''. Madrid : Turner, 1978. *''Don Lindo de Almería'' : (1926) Valencia : Pre-Textos, 1988. - *''Rimas y sonetos rezagados'' / *
Duendecitos y coplas
' Santiago de Chile; Madrid: Cruz del Sur, 1963. *''La claridad desierta'' Madrid: Turner, 1983. *''Del otoño y los mirlos: Madrid, El Retiro : otoño 1962'' Barcelona: RM, 1975. *''Apartada orilla : (1971-1972)'' Madrid : Turner, 1976. *''Velado desvelo : (1973-1977)'' Madrid : Turner, 1978. *''Esperando la mano de nieve : (1978-1981)'' Madrid: Turner, 1985. *''Canto rodado'' Madrid: Turner, 1984. *''Hora última'' Madrid: Turner, 1984. *''Por debajo del sueño: antología poética'' Málaga: Litoral, 1979. *''Poesías casi completas'' Madrid: Alianza, 1984. *''Antología poética'' Madrid: Castalia, 1997.

References

External links

Guía bibliográfica realizada con motivo del proyecto de Pedro G. Romero “El fantasma y el esqueleto: Un viaje, de Fuenteheridos a Hondarribia, por las figuras de la identidad”
* {{DEFAULTSORT:Bergamin Gutierrez, Jose 1895 births 1983 deaths Writers from Madrid Spanish male dramatists and playwrights Generation of '27 Spanish people of the Spanish Civil War (Republican faction) Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in France 20th-century Spanish dramatists and playwrights Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in Mexico Exiles of the Spanish Civil War in Uruguay Spanish diplomats Spanish editors 20th-century Spanish male writers