José Antonio Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia, 1st Duke of Primo de Rivera, 3rd Marquess of Estella
GE (24 April 1903 – 20 November 1936), often referred to simply as José Antonio, was a Spanish fascist politician who founded the
Falange Española ("Spanish Phalanx"), later
Falange Española de las JONS.
The eldest son of General
Miguel Primo de Rivera
Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja, 2nd Marquis of Estella, Grandee, GE (8 January 1870 – 16 March 1930), was a Spanish dictator and military officer who ruled as prime minister of Spain from 1923 to 1930 during the last years of the Resto ...
, who governed Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930, Primo de Rivera worked as a lawyer before entering politics, an enterprise he initially engaged in vowing to defend his deceased father's memory. He founded Falange Española in October 1933, shortly before running as a candidate in the
1933 general election, in which he won a seat in the
Congress of Deputies
The Congress of Deputies () is the lower house of the , Spain's legislative branch, the upper house being the Senate of Spain, Senate. The Congress meets in the Palacio de las Cortes, Madrid, Palace of the Parliament () in Madrid.
Congress has ...
of the
Second Spanish Republic
The Spanish Republic (), commonly known as the Second Spanish Republic (), was the form of democratic government in Spain from 1931 to 1939. The Republic was proclaimed on 14 April 1931 after the deposition of Alfonso XIII, King Alfonso XIII. ...
. He assumed the role of messianic leader and charged himself with the task of saving Spain in founding a fascist party, but he encountered difficulties widening his support base during his whole political life.
In 1936, he endorsed the Spanish
nationalist military coup against the republic that led to a
civil war
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
that he later tried to stop. Imprisoned before the start of the war, he was accused of
conspiracy
A conspiracy, also known as a plot, ploy, or scheme, is a secret plan or agreement between people (called conspirers or conspirators) for an unlawful or harmful purpose, such as murder, treason, or corruption, especially with a political motivat ...
and military rebellion against the government of the republic and was sentenced to death and executed during the first months of the war.
In life, he held the nobiliary title of 3rd
Marquess of Estella,
Grandee of Spain
Grandee (; , ) is an official royal and noble ranks, aristocratic title conferred on some Spanish nobility. Holders of this dignity enjoyed similar privileges to those of the peerage of France during the , though in neither country did they ha ...
. In 1948, he was posthumously given the title of
Duke of Primo de Rivera, which was subsequently passed to his brother
Miguel. The image of José Antonio was revered during the war by the
Nationalist faction, and after the establishment of
Francoist Spain
Francoist Spain (), also known as the Francoist dictatorship (), or Nationalist Spain () was the period of Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . After his death i ...
he was regarded as a
martyr
A martyr (, ''mártys'', 'witness' Word stem, stem , ''martyr-'') is someone who suffers persecution and death for advocating, renouncing, or refusing to renounce or advocate, a religious belief or other cause as demanded by an external party. In ...
, and used as a tool of the Francoist propaganda apparatus. The inscription of "José Antonio ¡Presente!" could be found in many churches all across Spain.
Biography
Early life
José Antonio Primo de Rivera was born on
Calle de Génova (Madrid) on April 24, 1903, the eldest son of the military officer
Miguel Primo de Rivera y Orbaneja (who would later govern Spain as dictator from 1923 to 1930) and Casilda Sáenz de Heredia y Suárez de Argudín. From his father he inherited the title of Marquess of Estella. He never married.

His mother died when he was five years old, and he was subsequently raised by his father's sister. He was privately taught at home, and learned English and French.
[.] When at university, he did not attend lectures until the second year of his undergraduate studies. He spent his summer holidays at the country estate of an uncle, where he practiced horseriding and hunting.
[Leoncio Jiménez Cano, 1980: "", El Arenal. Ávila. Ed. Antonio Álvarez Cadenas.]
Primo de Rivera went on to study law at the
University of Madrid between 1917 and 1923. He helped to organize the student union there, ''Federación Universitaria Escolar'', which opposed the higher-education policies of his father. He took undergraduate and graduate courses simultaneously and he obtained both his Bachelor and Doctor degrees in the same year, 1923.
After graduating, he chose the "One-Year Volunteer" option to do his military service while his father was dictator. He served with the Ninth
Dragoon
Dragoons were originally a class of mounted infantry, who used horses for mobility, but dismounted to fight on foot. From the early 17th century onward, dragoons were increasingly also employed as conventional cavalry and trained for combat wi ...
s of St. James cavalry regiment, stationed at
Barcelona
Barcelona ( ; ; ) is a city on the northeastern coast of Spain. It is the capital and largest city of the autonomous community of Catalonia, as well as the second-most populous municipality of Spain. With a population of 1.6 million within c ...
. He was court-martialed for punching a superior officer, the future
Nationalist
Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
army leader, Brigadier General
Gonzalo Queipo de Llano.
Queipo de Llano had written a defamatory letter against an uncle of José Antonio and against the Dictator himself. José Antonio, ready to defend the honour of his family abused by the Republican general, went to the café where the latter used to socialize, and after asking whether he was the author of the writing, and after receiving the general's affirmative reply, delivered a spectacular punch that made the general roll on the floor, sparking a free-for-all between the companions of José Antonio and the companions of the general.
Queipo de Llano had been a Republican in the time of the Rivera dictatorship, but is today remembered mostly as a notorious
Francoist war criminal in the
Civil War
A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
.
Primo de Rivera became a registered lawyer in 1925, and opened an office on a side street of Madrid very near the confluence of three principal avenues.
[José Antonio Primo de Rivera y Sáenz de Heredia]
, España desde 1931.
A relatively successful lawyer not involved nor expected to be involved in politics before 1930, the impetuous José Antonio Primo de Rivera decided to do so after the death of his father in his Parisian self-exile in 1930; this was for him the best way to defend the memory of his father, whose work at government had often been derided.
In 1931, he was invested "Perpetual Dean of the Illustrious College of Lawyers of Madrid".
[Jesús López Medel: .]
He ran for office under the banner of the
National Monarchist Union but failed to get elected.
[Semblanza de José Antonio Primo de Rivera](_blank)
He was detained briefly in 1932 for collaboration in General
José Sanjurjo's attempted coup.
Falangist leader

On October 29, 1933, Primo de Rivera launched the
Falange Española ("Spanish Phalanx"), a nationalist party, inspired in part with some ideas, such as the necessity of authority, hierarchical order of society, and grassroots populism, that were being expounded in Italy in the
Fascist
Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
movement. The foundational convention was held in the
Teatro de la Comedia of Madrid. He was the keynote speaker and his first address was a criticism of liberal democracy. In the speech he claimed the liberal state was not justified in it's existence, criticised
Rousseau, claimed democracy was hypocritical, and called on violence against the Spanish government.
[Fernando Díaz-Plaja:]
Discurso de José Antonio Primo de Rivera exponiendo los puntos fundamentales de Falange española, pronunciado en el Teatro de la Comedia de Madrid, el día 29 de octubre de 1933
" Documentos. During the speech he made remarks stating that violence was needed. Rivera claimed that certain goals could only be achieved through violence, and that the situation called only for insurrection.
Stanley G. Payne
Stanley George Payne (born September 9, 1934) is an American historian of modern Spain and Europe, European fascism at the University of Wisconsin–Madison. He retired from full-time teaching in 2004 and is currently Professor Emeritus at its Dep ...
argues that Rivera's view that violence was acceptable if done for a just cause was paralleled by that of the Spanish Left, who held similar views on the use of violence; unlike the Italian fascists, the Falange never developed a sophisticated theory for their doctrine of violence. Payne argues that because his father had ruled as a dictator with relatively minimal violence during the quieter 1920s, Rivera naively assumed he could impose a new authoritarian system with relatively limited violence, but he would eventually find himself caught in a spiral of killing that he could not control. When he founded the Falange, Antonio was more reluctant to use violence than other leading members of the party; he did not seem to expect violence from the political Left to be directed against the party. However, after
Juan Cuéllar's death, he seemed to overcome his reluctance and thus intermittent killings on both sides would continue.
Rivera's closing words on the eve of the
1933 Spanish general election
Elections to Spain's legislature, the Cortes Generales, were held on 19 November 1933 for all 473 seats in the unicameral Cortes of the Second Spanish Republic. Since the 1931 Spanish general election, previous elections of 1931, a Spanish Const ...
made explicit his
Romantic nationalism
Romantic nationalism (also national romanticism, organic nationalism, identity nationalism) is the form of nationalism in which the state claims its political legitimacy as an organic consequence of the unity of those it governs. This includes ...
. Stating that the people of Spain would need to make sacrifices in the name of nationalism. And claiming that right-wing parties in the election would not attain his desired result. Despite being a canidate he stated "I take part in these elections without faith or respect." Finally closing with a statement for political action outside of the official government.
He was a candidate in the general election of November 19 for the umbrella organization "Unión Agraria y Ciudadana," part of the broad conservative coalition
Confederación Española de Derechas Autónomas (CEDA).
He was elected to the Parliament as a representative of
Cádiz
Cádiz ( , , ) is a city in Spain and the capital of the Province of Cádiz in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. It is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula off the Atlantic Ocean separated fr ...
.
In his first parliamentary intervention he answered
Gil-Robles—the founder of CEDA—who had just spoken out against all
totalitarian
Totalitarianism is a political system and a form of government that prohibits opposition from political parties, disregards and outlaws the political claims of individual and group opposition to the state, and completely controls the public sph ...
forms of government for arrogating to themselves the attributes of God and crushing the personality of the individual. Rivera was elected under a shock coalition formed between the
Radical Republican Party
The Radical Republican Party (), sometimes shortened to the Radical Party, was a Spanish Radical party in existence between 1908 and 1936. Beginning as a splinter from earlier Radical parties, it initially played a minor role in Spanish parlia ...
and CEDA, meaning he entered government. The agreement would collapse support for the Radicals, which had previously Spain's largest Republican party during the
1936 Spanish general election. In the speech he moderated some of his positions, claimed no individual or social class holds all the power in society. Also stating that the state should follow Rousseau's ideals of representing the will of the people. Claimed that "goodness and truth are perennial tributaries of reason" and closed calling for unity towards a "permanent aspiration."
On February 11, 1934, Falange merged with
Ramiro Ledesma's
Juntas de Ofensiva Nacional-Sindicalista to create the
Falange Española de las JONS under José Antonio's leadership.
The antisemitic positions within FE de las JONS were mainly led by
Onésimo Redondo, with Ledesma and Primo de Rivera largely indifferent to the issue; however, Falangists attacked the Jewish-owned SEPU department stores in the spring of 1935; In the view of
Gonzalo Álvarez Chillida, both José Antonio and Ledesma probably thought that such antisemitic raids could enhance mobilization within the purportedly threatened small-business sector. He shared with other rightists the belief that violence was legitimate against a Republic that he perceived as influenced by communists, Jews and Freemasons.

The upper-class José Antonio abandoned the tie and suit and took on the new blue-shirt Falange uniform (despite later mocking
JAP militants because of this, the Falangists were originally dressed in suit and tie); the uniform, adopted in October 1935, was deliberately chosen as a reference to Italian Fascism.
In 1935 Primo de Rivera collaborated in editing the lyrics of the Falangist anthem, "
Cara al Sol" (Face to the Sun).
Every member of the Falange had to obey unquestioningly. They were told:
The honour and task of Falange must be gauged by those who carry the burden of leadership on their shoulders. Do not forget that one of the rules of our code of ethics is to have faith in the leaders. Your leaders are always right.
Prior to general elections of February 16, 1936, Primo discussed with Gil-Robles the question of Falange joing CEDA-led electoral alliances. He was offered 3 places, including the one in Salamanca which virtually guaranteed the mandate. However, Primo was not satisfied with the proposal, rejected it and decided that Falange candidates would run on their own.
Primo fielded his personal candidature in 13 electoral districts, always as individual non-aligned Falange candidate. In total, he won 24,017 votes. He performed best in
Cádiz
Cádiz ( , , ) is a city in Spain and the capital of the Province of Cádiz in the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Andalusia. It is located in the southwest of the Iberian Peninsula off the Atlantic Ocean separated fr ...
(he was supported by 7,499 voters, it is 4.66% of all voters), followed by
Cáceres (4,427; 2.30%),
Valladolid
Valladolid ( ; ) is a Municipalities of Spain, municipality in Spain and the primary seat of government and ''de facto'' capital of the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Castile and León. It is also the capital of the pr ...
(2,793; 2.15%), Madrid city (4,995; 1.20%), Seville city (942; 0.79%),
Toledo (1,479; 0.67%),
Huesca
Huesca (; ) is a city in north-eastern Spain, within the Autonomous communities of Spain, autonomous community of Aragon. It was the capital of the Kingdom of Aragon between 1096 and 1118. It is also the capital of the Spanish Huesca (province), ...
(260; 0.27%),
Oviedo
Oviedo () or Uviéu (Asturian language, Asturian: ) is the capital city of the Principality of Asturias in northern Spain and the administrative and commercial centre of the region. It is also the name of the municipality that contains th ...
(818; 0.25%),
Ciudad Real
Ciudad Real (, ) is a municipality of Spain located in the autonomous community of Castile–La Mancha, capital of the province of Ciudad Real. It is the 5th most populated municipality in the region.
It was founded as Villa Real in 1255 as a ro ...
(269; 0.14%),
Orense (141; 0.08%),
La Coruña (217; 0.07%),
Albacete (87; 0.06%), and Baleares (90; 0.06%).
In
Cuenca (where Primo did not run) the elections were initially declared invalid due to massive irregularities; they were to be repeated on May 3. This time the agreement with Gil-Robles was successfully concluded and Primo de Rivera was fielded on the list of a joint counter-revolutionary bloque. At this point electoral authorities changed the original decision and declared that the Cuenca elections, scheduled for May, would not be repeated elections, but the second round of indecisive February 16 elections. The change rendered Primo's candidature invalid, as in the second round only candidates running in the first round were allowed to stand (in case of repeated elections an entirely new set of candidates was possible). Some scholars claim that the decision was taken exactly to prevent Primo from standing. Despite this, Primo did not withdraw (peculiarity of the electoral regime was that invalid candidates were allowed on the list). There were 45,828 voters (44.38%) who supported Primo, even though most of them were probably aware that their votes would be discounted.
Falange won only 0.1% of the vote; but the wave of instability which greeted the victory of the
Popular Front—a left-wing coalition of anarchists, communists, socialists, liberal republicans like the radicals, and others—caused an influx of new members, and the minuscule party grew to more than 40,000 members by July.
Imprisonment and death
On March 14, 1936, he was arrested in Madrid and charged with illegal possession of firearms (at that time, Spain was awash in privately held weapons on the part of all political factions). Nine weeks later he was transferred to the prison in Alicante. In both Madrid and in Alicante, he was able to maintain intermittent secret contact with the Falange leadership and, several times, with General
Emilio Mola. On October 3 he was charged with
conspiracy against the Republic and military insurrection, both capital offences, even though he had been imprisoned long before the insurrection of July 18. Primo de Rivera conducted his own defence. On November 18 he was found guilty by a people's tribunal and sentenced to death by firing squad. The three career judges who participated in the trial, along with the popular tribunal, asked for the death sentence be commuted to life imprisonment but this was rejected by the majority of government ministers (the two ministers from ''
Izquierda Republicana'' voted against the death sentence). The sentence was carried out on November 20 by local authorities in Alicante.
It is said by some that the Republic offered the Nationalists a prisoner exchange involving Primo de Rivera and a son of the Republic's head of government
Francisco Largo Caballero
Francisco Largo Caballero (15 October 1869 – 23 March 1946) was a Spanish politician and trade unionist who served as the prime minister of the Second Spanish Republic during the Spanish Civil War. He was one of the historic leaders of the ...
and that
Franco turned down the offer. Others contend that it was the Republican government who rejected the deal of the Nationalists and that General Franco approved several failed commando raids on the Alicante prison to try to rescue José Antonio. Either way the death of the founder of Falange rid the general of a formidable rival. Perhaps tellingly, it was well known that the two men disliked each other. After one of the two meetings they had, Franco dismissed José Antonio as "a playboy pinturero" (a foppish playboy).
Elizabeth Bibesco's last novel, ''The Romantic'', published in 1940, starts with a dedication to José Antonio Primo de Rivera, whom she had known during her stay in Madrid where her husband, Prince
Antoine Bibesco, was a diplomat from Romania in Spain between 1927 and 1931: "To José Antonio Primo de Rivera. I promised you a book before it was begun. It is yours now that it is finished – Those we love die for us only when we die–".
Post-mortem relevance
Falange joined the military uprising against the Republic. The initially marginal party gained ascendancy over the course of the war, partly as a result of its prominent role in the brutal repression that took place behind Nationalist lines. Nevertheless, the party lost autonomy, and in 1937 was made wholly subservient to the will of General Franco when he had Primo de Rivera's temporary replacement,
Manuel Hedilla Larrey, thrown in jail, tried and sentenced to death (although his sentence was commuted). Franco decreed the merging of the Falange Española de las JONS with the Carlist traditionalists through the
Unification Decree, and became the national chief of the new party,
FET y de las JONS.
The reign of Francisco Franco nurtured a convenient
cult of personality
A cult of personality, or a cult of the leader,Cas Mudde, Mudde, Cas and Kaltwasser, Cristóbal Rovira (2017) ''Populism: A Very Short Introduction''. New York: Oxford University Press. p. 63. is the result of an effort which is made to create ...
around the dead figure of Primo de Rivera whom Falangists dubbed "El Ausente" (The Missing One). This name was created during the period after de Rivera's execution but before this was officially confirmed to the Nationalist public at large by its leadership on 18 July 1938. While the Falangist leadership knew the truth, they chose to keep it a secret for fear of the impact it would have on morale, though rumours of his death would continue to circulate for the period. Thus until this date many Falangists had lived in hope that de Rivera would still return (commonly saying "when José Antonio comes back") and began referring to him as "The Absent One", a reference to the Falange's tradition of calling "present!" when the names of the fallen were read out. The founder of Falange was anointed a martyr of the "crusade against Marxism." Notwithstanding the apparent veneration by the
Francoist State
Francoist Spain (), also known as the Francoist dictatorship (), or Nationalist Spain () was the period of History of Spain, Spanish history between 1936 and 1975, when Francisco Franco ruled Spain after the Spanish Civil War with the title . ...
, it remains true that the Missing One's demise had removed a dangerous opponent: Primo de Rivera had been Marquess, a doctor of civil law, a political thinker; Franco owned no comparable pedigree, no comparable education and no personal ideology.
The postwar cult of personality had two ubiquitous icons. The first, a funereal slab placed on the external wall of many churches and cathedrals which bore the crowning inscription, ''Caídos por Dios y por España'' ("Fallen for God and for Spain"), followed by a list of local Nationalists killed during the war; Primo de Rivera's name headed every list. The second was the rallying cry, "''José Antonio—¡Presente!''," a figurative reply to an imaginary roll call invoking his ghostly attendance or immanence.
With the arrival of democratic rule, the legacy of Primo de Rivera and the cult of personality created by the
Spanish state started to wane circumspectly. In 1981, the
Madrid City Council moved to reinstate the original name of its grand avenue, the
Gran Vía, which Franco had renamed "Avenida José Antonio Primo de Rivera" in 1939. However, as late as March 2005, the
Guadalajara
Guadalajara ( ; ) is the capital and the most populous city in the western Mexican List of states of Mexico, state of Jalisco, as well as the most densely populated municipality in Jalisco. According to the 2020 census, the city has a population ...
City Council removed a memorial to the founder of Falange under cover of darkness.
Burial
At the end of the war in 1939, the remains of Primo de Rivera were carried on the shoulders of Falangist relay teams from Alicante to Madrid (a 300-kilometre journey) and provisionally interred at
El Escorial
El Escorial, or the Royal Site of San Lorenzo de El Escorial (), or (), is a historical residence of the king of Spain located in the town of San Lorenzo de El Escorial, up the valley ( road distance) from the town of El Escorial, Madrid, El ...
. The church had contained the pantheon of Spanish monarchs but Primo de Rivera was buried directly in front of the altar.
Reburial at the Valley of the Fallen
In 1959, Primo de Rivera was exhumed and re-interred 13 km away in the basilica of the
Valley of the Fallen, located in the Guadarrama mountain range.
Between 1975 and 2019 Francisco Franco was buried nearby.
In the context of making the site less partisan, Franco's remains were removed from the Valley. This did not establish a clear precedent for moving Primo de Rivera, given that he died a victim of the Civil War like most of the other burials at the site. However, in late 2022 it was reported that Primo de Rivera's family had requested the exhumation of his remains on the grounds that the deceased wanted a
Catholic
The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
burial. The
Democratic Memory Law of 2022 envisaged the future of the Valley of the Fallen as a civil cemetery, and accordingly the government proposed to
deconsecrate the crypt of the church in order to promote national reconciliation.
Reburial at San Isidro cemetery, Madrid
Primo de Rivera's family arranged for his remains to be exhumed from the Valley in April 2023 and reburied in
Saint Isidore Cemetery in Madrid.
Ideology
He espoused an
elitist understanding of politics, influenced by the ideas of
Ortega y Gasset. His political thought fascistised as he progressively radicalised in an anti-conservative direction. Primo de Rivera put much faith on
corporatism
Corporatism is an ideology and political system of interest representation and policymaking whereby Corporate group (sociology), corporate groups, such as agricultural, labour, military, business, scientific, or guild associations, come toget ...
, one of the few early Falangist tenets framed in positive terms, adopted from
Italian Fascism
Italian fascism (), also called classical fascism and Fascism, is the original fascist ideology, which Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini developed in Italy. The ideology of Italian fascism is associated with a series of political parties le ...
.
Regarding
political violence
Political violence is violence which is perpetrated in order to achieve political goals. It can include violence which is used by a State (polity), state against other states (war), violence which is used by a state against civilians and non-st ...
, he early alluded to what he famously termed as the "dialectics of fists and guns", already stating during the Falange foundation event at the Teatro de la Comedia, that in order to fulfill the desired cultural and historical regeneration of Spain, "if this has to be achieved through violence, we shall not be stopped by violence". Willing to offer an alternative to the most basic fundamentals behind liberal democracy, he also non-accidentally addressed some words of scorn to "that terrible man who was called
Juan Jacobo Rousseau" during the foundational meeting of the Falange.
Like other Falangists, Primo de Rivera partially embraced the sense of Castilianist essentialism from the
Generation of '98, but, conversely, he was also distinctly aware of the cultural plurality of the peoples in Spain, and thus the Falangist national project for Spain was framed following the ''orteguian'' legacy as one of "unity of destiny in the universal". It has been noted that at some point he benignly put his hopes on politicians far from his own Fascist stances such as republican
Manuel Azaña
Manuel Azaña Díaz (; 10 January 1880 – 3 November 1940) was a Spanish politician who served as Prime Minister of Spain, Prime Minister of the Second Spanish Republic (1931–1933 and 1936), organizer of the Popular Front in 1935 and the la ...
(in this case for a very brief time) or socialist
Indalecio Prieto as potential candidates to alleviate his self-imposed burden for "saving" the country.
According to Álvarez Chillida, Primo de Rivera's written works did not feature a marked
antisemitism
Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
when compared to other Falangist leaders.
Genealogy
Notes
References
Bibliography
*
*
*
*
*
*
Payne, Stanley G. (1961) ''Falange. A History of Spanish Fascism''.
Stanford University Press
Stanford University Press (SUP) is the publishing house of Stanford University. It is one of the oldest academic presses in the United States and the first university press to be established on the West Coast. It is currently a member of the Ass ...
*
*
*
*
*
Thomas, Hugh. "The Hero in the Empty Room: Jose Antonio and Spanish Fascism," ''
Journal of Contemporary History'' (1966) 1#1 pp. 174–182
*
* Velarde Fuertes, Juan. "José Antonio y la economía" Grafite ediciones.
*
*
External links
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