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The Jewish–Roman wars were a series of large-scale revolts by the
Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...
of Judaea against the
Roman Empire The Roman Empire ruled the Mediterranean and much of Europe, Western Asia and North Africa. The Roman people, Romans conquered most of this during the Roman Republic, Republic, and it was ruled by emperors following Octavian's assumption of ...
between 66 and 135 CE. The conflict was driven by Jewish aspirations to restore the political independence lost when Rome conquered the Hasmonean kingdom, and unfolded over three major uprisings: the First Jewish–Roman War (66–73 CE), the Kitos War (116–118 CE) and the Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136 CE). Some historians also include the Diaspora Revolt (115–117 CE) which coincided with the Kitos War, when Jewish communities across the
Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...
rose up against Roman rule. The Jewish–Roman wars had a devastating impact on the Jewish people, turning them from a major population in the Eastern Mediterranean into a dispersed and persecuted minority. The First Jewish-Roman War ended with the devastating siege and destruction of Jerusalem in 70 CE, including the burning of the
Second Temple The Second Temple () was the Temple in Jerusalem that replaced Solomon's Temple, which was destroyed during the Siege of Jerusalem (587 BC), Babylonian siege of Jerusalem in 587 BCE. It was constructed around 516 BCE and later enhanced by Herod ...
—the center of Jewish religious and national life. Roman forces destroyed other towns and villages throughout Judaea, causing massive loss of life and displacement of the population. The surviving Jewish community lost all political autonomy under direct Roman rule. The later Bar Kokhba revolt proved even more devastating. The Romans' brutal suppression of this uprising led to the near-total depopulation of Judea through a combination of battlefield casualties, mass killings, and the widespread enslavement of survivors. These catastrophic events expanded and strengthened the
Jewish diaspora The Jewish diaspora ( ), alternatively the dispersion ( ) or the exile ( ; ), consists of Jews who reside outside of the Land of Israel. Historically, it refers to the expansive scattering of the Israelites out of their homeland in the Southe ...
, driving profound religious and cultural transformations that would shape
Judaism Judaism () is an Abrahamic religions, Abrahamic, Monotheism, monotheistic, ethnic religion that comprises the collective spiritual, cultural, and legal traditions of the Jews, Jewish people. Religious Jews regard Judaism as their means of o ...
for millennia. With the Temple's sacrificial cult no longer viable, other forms of worship developed, centered on
prayer File:Prayers-collage.png, 300px, alt=Collage of various religionists praying – Clickable Image, Collage of various religionists praying ''(Clickable image – use cursor to identify.)'' rect 0 0 1000 1000 Shinto festivalgoer praying in front ...
, Torah study, and communal
synagogue A synagogue, also called a shul or a temple, is a place of worship for Jews and Samaritans. It is a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels) where Jews attend religious services or special ceremonies such as wed ...
gatherings, enabling Jewish communities to preserve their identity and practices despite dispersion. As Jewish life in Judaea became untenable, two major shifts occurred: within the
Land of Israel The Land of Israel () is the traditional Jewish name for an area of the Southern Levant. Related biblical, religious and historical English terms include the Land of Canaan, the Promised Land, the Holy Land, and Palestine. The definition ...
, the cultural center shifted northward to Galilee, while internationally,
Babylonia Babylonia (; , ) was an Ancient history, ancient Akkadian language, Akkadian-speaking state and cultural area based in the city of Babylon in central-southern Mesopotamia (present-day Iraq and parts of Kuwait, Syria and Iran). It emerged as a ...
and other diaspora communities across the
Mediterranean The Mediterranean Sea ( ) is a sea connected to the Atlantic Ocean, surrounded by the Mediterranean basin and almost completely enclosed by land: on the east by the Levant in West Asia, on the north by Anatolia in West Asia and Southern ...
and
Near East The Near East () is a transcontinental region around the Eastern Mediterranean encompassing the historical Fertile Crescent, the Levant, Anatolia, Egypt, Mesopotamia, and coastal areas of the Arabian Peninsula. The term was invented in the 20th ...
gained unprecedented importance, eventually comprising the majority of the Jewish population. These developments laid the foundation for Rabbinic Judaism, which emerged as the dominant form of Judaism in
late antiquity Late antiquity marks the period that comes after the end of classical antiquity and stretches into the onset of the Early Middle Ages. Late antiquity as a period was popularized by Peter Brown (historian), Peter Brown in 1971, and this periodiza ...
and was responsible for the codification of the
Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...
and
Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...
.


Sequence

The Jewish–Roman wars include the following: * First Jewish–Roman War (66–73)—also called the First Jewish Revolt or the Great Jewish Revolt, spanning from the 66 insurrection, through the 67 fall of the Galilee, the destruction of Jerusalem and the Second Temple and institution of the '' Fiscus Judaicus'' in 70, and finally the fall of Masada in 73. * Diaspora revolt (115–117)—known as the "Rebellion of the Exile" and sometimes called the Second Jewish–Roman War; includes the Kitos War in Judaea. * Bar Kokhba revolt (132–136)—also called the Second Jewish–Roman War (if the Kitos War is not counted), or the Third (if it is).


Background

Rome gained control of Judaea, then an independent kingdom ruled by the Hasmonean dynasty, in 63 BCE. That year, the Roman general
Pompey Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus (; 29 September 106 BC – 28 September 48 BC), known in English as Pompey ( ) or Pompey the Great, was a Roman general and statesman who was prominent in the last decades of the Roman Republic. ...
intervened in a succession war between brothers Hyrcanus and Aristobulus, who were fighting for the throne following the death of their mother, Queen
Salome Alexandra Salome Alexandra, also ''Shlomtzion'', ''Shelamzion'' (; , ''Šəlōmṣīyyōn'', "peace of Zion"; 141–67 BC), was a regnant queen of Judaea, one of only three women in Jewish historical tradition to rule over the country, the other tw ...
. Pompey besieged and conquered Jerusalem, committing a religious violation by entering the Temple's
Holy of Holies The Holy of Holies ( or ''Kodesh HaKodashim''; also ''hadDəḇīr'', 'the Sanctuary') is a term in the Hebrew Bible that refers to the inner sanctuary of the Tabernacle, where the Shekhinah (God in Judaism, God's presence) appeared. According ...
, a space reserved exclusively for the High Priest who entered it only once a year on Yom Kippur. After the Roman conquest, Judaea became a client state: the monarchy was abolished, and Hyrcanus was reduced to serving solely as High Priest. Parts of the former kingdom were detached and incorporated into the province of Syria, likely in an attempt to weaken the Jewish population economically and pave the way for future annexation. Fifteen years later,
Julius Caesar Gaius Julius Caesar (12 or 13 July 100 BC – 15 March 44 BC) was a Roman general and statesman. A member of the First Triumvirate, Caesar led the Roman armies in the Gallic Wars before defeating his political rival Pompey in Caesar's civil wa ...
visited the region and improved Jewish status, restoring some territories to Jewish control and appointing Hyrcanus as
ethnarch Ethnarch (pronounced , also ethnarches, ) is a term that refers generally to political leadership over a common ethnic group or homogeneous kingdom. The word is derived from the Greek language, Greek words (''Ethnic group, ethnos'', "tribe/nation ...
.
Antigonus II Mattathias Antigonus II Mattathias ( ''Antígonos''; , ''Mattīṯyāhū''), also known as Antigonus the Hasmonean (died 37 BCE) was the last Hasmonean dynasty, Hasmonean king of Judea. He was the son of King Aristobulus II of Judea. In 37 BCE Herod the Grea ...
, Aristobolus's son, reclaimed Judaea's throne in 40 BCE with popular and Parthian support. Meanwhile, the
Roman Senate The Roman Senate () was the highest and constituting assembly of ancient Rome and its aristocracy. With different powers throughout its existence it lasted from the first days of the city of Rome (traditionally founded in 753 BC) as the Sena ...
appointed Herod, an Idumean noble from a family that had converted to Judaism a century prior, as "King of the Jews". It took Herod three years to conquer the kingdom, capturing Jerusalem through siege and ending Antigonus' brief reign. He ruled Judaea as a client kingdom, maintaining close ties with Rome, though he faced widespread Jewish resentment. After his death in 4 BCE, his realm was divided among his sons: Archelaus became ethnarch of Judaea,
Samaria Samaria (), the Hellenized form of the Hebrew name Shomron (), is used as a historical and Hebrew Bible, biblical name for the central region of the Land of Israel. It is bordered by Judea to the south and Galilee to the north. The region is ...
, and Idumaea, while Herod Antipas governed Galilee and Perea. Archelaus' misrule led to his removal within a decade, and in 6 CE Judaea was annexed as a
Roman province The Roman provinces (, pl. ) were the administrative regions of Ancient Rome outside Roman Italy that were controlled by the Romans under the Roman Republic and later the Roman Empire. Each province was ruled by a Roman appointed as Roman g ...
. In 6 CE,
Quirinius Publius Sulpicius Quirinius (c. 51 BC – AD 21), also translated as Cyrenius, was a Roman aristocrat. After the banishment of the ethnarch Herod Archelaus from the tetrarchy of Judea in AD 6, Quirinius was appointed legate governor of Syria, ...
, the governor of Syria, conducted a census in Judaea, triggering an uprising led by Judas of Galilee. Judas led what Josephus described as the ' fourth philosophy,' rejecting Roman rule and affirmed God's sole kingship. During the tenure of
Pontius Pilate Pontius Pilate (; ) was the Roman administration of Judaea (AD 6–135), fifth governor of the Judaea (Roman province), Roman province of Judaea, serving under Emperor Tiberius from 26/27 to 36/37 AD. He is best known for being the official wh ...
(c. 26–36 CE), several incidents provoked unrest: the introduction of military standards into Jerusalem, the diversion of Temple funds to build an aqueduct, and a soldier's indecent exposure near the Temple. Although initially pacified (the years between 7 and 26 being relatively quiet), the province continued to be a source of trouble under Emperor
Caligula Gaius Caesar Augustus Germanicus (31 August 12 – 24 January 41), also called Gaius and Caligula (), was Roman emperor from AD 37 until his assassination in 41. He was the son of the Roman general Germanicus and Augustus' granddaughter Ag ...
(after 37). The cause of tensions in the east of the empire was complicated, involving the spread of Greek culture,
Roman law Roman law is the law, legal system of ancient Rome, including the legal developments spanning over a thousand years of jurisprudence, from the Twelve Tables (), to the (AD 529) ordered by Eastern Roman emperor Justinian I. Roman law also den ...
, and the rights of Jews in the empire. Caligula did not trust the prefect of
Roman Egypt Roman Egypt was an imperial province of the Roman Empire from 30 BC to AD 642. The province encompassed most of modern-day Egypt except for the Sinai. It was bordered by the provinces of Crete and Cyrenaica to the west and Judaea, ...
, Aulus Avilius Flaccus. Flaccus had been loyal to
Tiberius Tiberius Julius Caesar Augustus ( ; 16 November 42 BC – 16 March AD 37) was Roman emperor from AD 14 until 37. He succeeded his stepfather Augustus, the first Roman emperor. Tiberius was born in Rome in 42 BC to Roman politician Tiberius Cl ...
, had conspired against Caligula's mother, and had connections with Egyptian separatists. In 38 Caligula sent Herod Agrippa to
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
unannounced to check on Flaccus. According to
Philo Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...
, the visit was met with jeers from the Greek population, who saw Agrippa as the king of the Jews. Flaccus tried to placate both the Greek population and Caligula by having statues of the emperor placed in Jewish synagogues. As a result, extensive religious riots broke out in the city. Caligula responded by removing Flaccus from his position and executing him. In
Antiquities of the Jews ''Antiquities of the Jews'' (; , ''Ioudaikē archaiologia'') is a 20-volume historiographical work, written in Greek, by the Roman-Jewish historian Josephus in the 13th year of the reign of the Roman emperor Domitian, which was 94 CE. It cont ...
,
Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...
mentions that in 39 CE Agrippa accused Herod Antipas, the tetrarch of Galilee and
Peraea Peraia, and Peraea or Peræa (from , ''hē peraia'', "land across") in Classical Antiquity referred to "a community's territory lying 'opposite', predominantly (but not exclusively) a mainland possession of an island state" according to Karl-Wilhe ...
, of planning a rebellion against Roman rule with the help of
Parthia Parthia ( ''Parθava''; ''Parθaw''; ''Pahlaw'') is a historical region located in northeastern Greater Iran. It was conquered and subjugated by the empire of the Medes during the 7th century BC, was incorporated into the subsequent Achaemeni ...
. Antipas confessed, and Caligula exiled him. Agrippa was rewarded with his territories.Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' XVIII.7.2. Riots again erupted in Alexandria in 38 between Jews and Greeks.Josephus, ''Antiquities of the Jews'' XVIII.8.1. Jews were accused of not honoring the emperor. Disputes occurred also in Jamnia.Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' XXX.201. Jews were angered by the erection of a clay altar and destroyed it. In response, Caligula ordered the erection of a statue of himself in the
Temple in Jerusalem The Temple in Jerusalem, or alternatively the Holy Temple (; , ), refers to the two religious structures that served as the central places of worship for Israelites and Jews on the modern-day Temple Mount in the Old City of Jerusalem. Accord ...
,Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' XXX.203. a demand in conflict with Jewish monotheism.Philo of Alexandria, ''On the Embassy to Gaius'' XVI.115. In this context,
Philo Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...
writes that Caligula "regarded the Jews with most especial suspicion, as if they were the only persons who cherished wishes opposed to his". Fearing civil war if the order were carried out, Publius Petronius—governor of Roman Syria—delayed implementing it for nearly a year. Agrippa finally convinced Caligula to reverse the order. However, only Caligula's death at the hands of Roman conspirators in 41 prevented a full-scale war in Judaea, that might have spread to the rest of the eastern part of the empire. Caligula's death did not stop the tensions completely, and in 46 an insurrection led by two brothers, the Jacob and Simon uprising, broke out in the Judea province. The revolt, mainly in the Galilee, began as sporadic insurgency; when it climaxed in 48 it was quickly put down by Roman authorities. Both Simon and Jacob were executed.


First Jewish–Roman War

In the spring and summer of 66 CE, a chain of events in Caesarea and
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
sparked what would become the First Jewish–Roman War. The conflict began with a local dispute in Caesarea over land adjacent to a synagogue, which escalated when a Greek resident deliberately provoked the Jewish community by sacrificing birds at the synagogue entrance. The situation worsened when Florus plundered the Jerusalem Temple treasury and ordered brutal crackdowns that killed thousands in the city. After Agrippa II, a pro-Roman Jewish king, failed to relax the crowds and fled the city, Eleazar ben Hanania, the Temple captain, halted sacrifices for Rome—effectively declaring rebellion. The crisis spiraled into widespread ethnic violence across the region, with massacres of Jewish communities in several mixed cities, while Jewish forces retaliated against Greek cities and seized key fortresses. In Jerusalem, the rebels drove out and killed the remaining Roman forces; afterward, Menahem ben Judah, leader of the Sicarii, attempted to seize power but was assassinated, leading to the Sicarii's expulsion to the desert fortress of Masada. At this stage, the Roman legate of Syria, Cestius Gallus, assembled a force including the Legio XII Fulminata and auxiliary troops from regional vassals, devastating Jewish settlements such as Chabulon,
Jaffa Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...
and Lydda. However, after initial successes, he withdrew from the city for unclear reasons and was decisively ambushed at the Bethoron Pass, suffering losses equivalent to a full legion. This unexpected defeat proved a turning point, bolstering rebel morale and leading to the establishment of a
provisional government A provisional government, also called an interim government, an emergency government, a transitional government or provisional leadership, is a temporary government formed to manage a period of transition, often following state collapse, revoluti ...
in Jerusalem. Led by former High Priest Ananus ben Ananus, this new administration divided the country into military districts, appointed regional commanders, and began
minting coins A mint is an industrial facility which manufacturing, manufactures coins that can be used as currency. The history of mints correlates closely with the history of coins. In the beginning, hammered coinage or cast coinage were the chief means ...
with nationalist Hebrew inscriptions, such as "For the Freedom of Zion". While the government publicly supported the revolt, they seem to have secretly hoped to restore order and negotiate with Rome. During this period, several rebel leaders emerged, including
John of Gischala John of Gischala (, ; , 70) was a leader of the First Jewish-Roman War, first Jewish revolt against the Romans. History During the Jewish war with Rome, John of Gischala (), son of Levi (), vied with Josephus over the control of Galilee and ama ...
in Galilee and Simon Bar Giora in Judea. After Gallus' defeat,
Nero Nero Claudius Caesar Augustus Germanicus ( ; born Lucius Domitius Ahenobarbus; 15 December AD 37 – 9 June AD 68) was a Roman emperor and the final emperor of the Julio-Claudian dynasty, reigning from AD 54 until his ...
appointed the experienced commander
Vespasian Vespasian (; ; 17 November AD 9 – 23 June 79) was Roman emperor from 69 to 79. The last emperor to reign in the Year of the Four Emperors, he founded the Flavian dynasty, which ruled the Empire for 27 years. His fiscal reforms and consolida ...
to lead the Roman response. He assembled a massive force including three legions and numerous auxiliary troops. Arriving in Akko-Ptolemais in the summer of 67 CE, Vespasian launched a systematic campaign in the Galilee. Yodfat, a key stronghold, fell after a grueling 47-day siege, with thousands killed or captured.
Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...
, who had been the commander of the Galilee, surrendered after the city's fall and later gained Roman favor by claiming prophetic visions of Vespasian's rise to power, ultimately becoming a historian under Flavian patronage and the main source for the war. Taricheae mounted fierce resistance before falling in an event of mass killing, with its survivors facing execution, slavery, or other severe punishments. Gamla, a fortified city in the Golan, was the next Roman target. After a prolonged siege, it fell in the autumn of 67 CE. Despite suffering heavy casualties, the Romans succeeded, leaving the city in ruins and its population nearly exterminated. Other Roman successes included the recapture of Mount Tabor, Gush Halav,
Mount Gerizim Mount Gerizim ( ; ; ; , or ) is one of two mountains in the immediate vicinity of the State of Palestine, Palestinian city of Nablus and the biblical city of Shechem. It forms the southern side of the valley in which Nablus is situated, the nor ...
, and
Jaffa Jaffa (, ; , ), also called Japho, Joppa or Joppe in English, is an ancient Levantine Sea, Levantine port city which is part of Tel Aviv, Tel Aviv-Yafo, Israel, located in its southern part. The city sits atop a naturally elevated outcrop on ...
, where they suppressed rebel piracy and restored imperial control. While the Romans pacified the north, Jerusalem plunged into civil war as refugees and zealots poured in from the Galilee. The radical Zealot faction, allied with John of Gischala, who arrived in the city with his followers from the north, overthrew the moderate government. With Idumeans joining the Zealots, Ananus ben Ananus was killed, and his forces suffered heavy casualties; many moderates were executed or forced to flee. The Zealots instituted revolutionary changes, including selecting a new High Priest by lot rather than from traditional aristocratic families. Upon learning of the turmoil in Jerusalem from deserters, Vespasian chose not to advance on the city, reasoning that internal conflict would weaken the Jews. After a lull in military operations due to civil war and political instability in Rome, Vespasian returned to Rome and was proclaimed emperor in 69 CE. After Vespasian's departure, his son Titus besieged the center of rebel resistance in Jerusalem in early 70. As conditions within Jerusalem deteriorated catastrophically—with widespread famine, disease, and factional violence—the Romans employed psychological warfare, including mass crucifixions of escapees and parades displaying their military might. While the first two walls of Jerusalem were breached within three weeks, a stubborn stand prevented the Roman Army from breaking the third and thickest wall. However, they eventually penetrated the Jewish defenses, fighting through to the
Temple Mount The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...
and destroying the Temple. The Romans then methodically razed the rest of the city, sparing only the Western Wall and a few towers. Archaeological findings corroborate these accounts of widespread destruction. Titus returned to Rome, where he and his father celebrated a triumph in the summer of 71, during which the Temple menorah and other spoils from the Temple were paraded through the city. The triumph also featured hundreds of captives, including Simon bar Giora, who was executed at the end of the procession. With Jerusalem destroyed, the Romans launched an operation aimed at eliminating the last pockets of resistance: the rebel-held desert fortresses of Herodium, Machaerus, and Masada. Under Sextus Lucilius Bassus, the Romans swiftly captured Herodium, secured the surrender of Machaerus, and then eliminated rebel forces in the Forest of Jardes. After Bassus's death, his successor Lucius Flavius Silva led the siege of Masada in 73 or 74 CE. This massive engineering effort on an isolated, fortified rocky plateau near the
Dead Sea The Dead Sea (; or ; ), also known by #Names, other names, is a landlocked salt lake bordered by Jordan to the east, the Israeli-occupied West Bank to the west and Israel to the southwest. It lies in the endorheic basin of the Jordan Rift Valle ...
included a complete circumvallation wall and an enormous siege ramp, which still stands today. According to Josephus, when the Romans finally breached the fortress walls, they discovered that the Sicarii defenders, led by Eleazar ben Yair, had chosen mass suicide over capture—960 men, women, and children died by their own hands, with only seven survivors.


Diaspora Revolt

In 115 CE, a wave of large-scale Jewish uprisings, known as the " Diaspora Revolt", erupted almost simultaneously across several provinces in the
Eastern Mediterranean The Eastern Mediterranean is a loosely delimited region comprising the easternmost portion of the Mediterranean Sea, and well as the adjoining land—often defined as the countries around the Levantine Sea. It includes the southern half of Turkey ...
. At that time, Emperor
Trajan Trajan ( ; born Marcus Ulpius Traianus, 18 September 53) was a Roman emperor from AD 98 to 117, remembered as the second of the Five Good Emperors of the Nerva–Antonine dynasty. He was a philanthropic ruler and a successful soldier ...
was further east, engaged in a
military campaign A military campaign is large-scale long-duration significant military strategy plan incorporating a series of interrelated military operations or battles forming a distinct part of a larger conflict often called a war. The term derives from th ...
against the
Parthian Empire The Parthian Empire (), also known as the Arsacid Empire (), was a major Iranian political and cultural power centered in ancient Iran from 247 BC to 224 AD. Its latter name comes from its founder, Arsaces I, who led the Parni tribe ...
in
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
. The uprisings, which followed decades of ethnic tensions that sometimes escalated into violence, appear to have been influenced by events in Judaea, including the destruction of the Temple and the arrival of insurgents after the First Jewish–Roman War, spreading revolutionary ideas among local Jewish communities. Also fueling the unrest were messianic expectations of divine redemption, the humiliating Jewish Tax, and what seems to be an attempt to create a mass movement of Jews from the
diaspora A diaspora ( ) is a population that is scattered across regions which are separate from its geographic place of birth, place of origin. The word is used in reference to people who identify with a specific geographic location, but currently resi ...
into Judaea. In
Libya Libya, officially the State of Libya, is a country in the Maghreb region of North Africa. It borders the Mediterranean Sea to the north, Egypt to Egypt–Libya border, the east, Sudan to Libya–Sudan border, the southeast, Chad to Chad–L ...
, Jewish forces launched attacks against Greek and Roman populations under the leadership of either Andreas (according to Dio/ Xiphilinus) or Lukuas (according to Eusebius) – possibly the same individual known by both names. Dio describes extreme brutality by the Jewish forces in the Libyan region of
Cyrenaica Cyrenaica ( ) or Kyrenaika (, , after the city of Cyrene), is the eastern region of Libya. Cyrenaica includes all of the eastern part of Libya between the 16th and 25th meridians east, including the Kufra District. The coastal region, als ...
, but these accounts are likely exaggerated. In Egypt, the uprising reportedly began with clashes between Jewish communities and their Greek neighbors, escalating when Lukuas and his followers arrived from Cyrenaica. They plundered the countryside and overcame local resistance, prompting Greeks, supported by Egyptian peasants and Romans, to retaliate with a massacre of
Alexandria Alexandria ( ; ) is the List of cities and towns in Egypt#Largest cities, second largest city in Egypt and the List of coastal settlements of the Mediterranean Sea, largest city on the Mediterranean coast. It lies at the western edge of the Nile ...
's Jews. In both provinces, the Jews destroyed public sites such as the shrine of Nemesis near Alexandria and temples in Libya, while also securing control of waterways in Egypt. In
Cyprus Cyprus (), officially the Republic of Cyprus, is an island country in the eastern Mediterranean Sea. Situated in West Asia, its cultural identity and geopolitical orientation are overwhelmingly Southeast European. Cyprus is the List of isl ...
, Jewish rebels under Artemion's leadership reportedly devastated the island and the city of Salamis. Eusebius also mentions Roman violence against Jews in
Mesopotamia Mesopotamia is a historical region of West Asia situated within the Tigris–Euphrates river system, in the northern part of the Fertile Crescent. Today, Mesopotamia is known as present-day Iraq and forms the eastern geographic boundary of ...
, but modern analysis of the available evidence suggests this was part of broader local uprisings against Roman rule, with Jewish involvement likely influenced by their favorable status under Parthian control. The uprisings in Egypt and Libya were suppressed by Marcius Turbo, who was redirected from the campaign against the Parthians. In late 116 or early 117, he arrived in Egypt with substantial land and naval forces, including Roman legions, auxiliaries, and local recruits. Turbo carried out extensive and brutal military campaigns, reportedly annihilating the Jewish population. In Mesopotamia, another general, Lusius Quietus, was involved in subduing local insurgency. Following this, he was appointed governor of Judaea. It was around this time that localized unrest, referred to in rabbinic sources as the Kitos War after Quietus, occurred in the province. However, the evidence in ancient sources is so limited that the details of these events remain unclear. The uprisings in the diaspora were likely quelled by summer or autumn 117 CE, though it is possible that unrest in Egypt continued into the winter of 117/118 CE. The aftermath brought devastating consequences for Jewish communities. A campaign of
ethnic cleansing Ethnic cleansing is the systematic forced removal of ethnic, racial, or religious groups from a given area, with the intent of making the society ethnically homogeneous. Along with direct removal such as deportation or population transfer, it ...
led to the near-complete extermination of Jews from Cyrenaica, Cyprus, and Egypt. Trajan implemented a new registry cataloging confiscated Jewish properties. Alexandria's wealthy and influential Jewish community was effectively destroyed, with survivors limited to those who fled early in the uprising. The city's grand synagogue, celebrated in the
Talmud The Talmud (; ) is the central text of Rabbinic Judaism and the primary source of Jewish religious law (''halakha'') and Jewish theology. Until the advent of Haskalah#Effects, modernity, in nearly all Jewish communities, the Talmud was the cen ...
, was destroyed, and its Jewish court likely abolished. Some Jews may have escaped to Judaea and Syria. The physical impact was equally severe. Archaeological evidence shows such extensive damage to Cyrene that
Hadrian Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...
needed to rebuild the city early in his reign. A festival commemorating the victory over the Jews continued in Egypt eighty years later, c. 200 CE. In Cyprus, Jews were permanently banned; Cassius Dio noted that even in his time, during the third century, Jews faced death if found on the island, even due to shipwreck. Jewish communities only gradually re-established themselves: in Egypt during the third century (though never regaining their former influence), and in Cyprus and Cyrenaica by the fourth century.


Bar Kokhba revolt

The Bar Kokhba revolt (132–135/136 CE) was the last major Jewish revolt and organized effort to regain national independence. The immediate catalysts for the rebellion included Emperor Hadrian's decision to establish the pagan colony of Aelia Capitolina on the ruins of Jerusalem, extinguishing Jewish hopes for the Temple's restoration, and possibly also the imposition of a ban on
circumcision Circumcision is a procedure that removes the foreskin from the human penis. In the most common form of the operation, the foreskin is extended with forceps, then a circumcision device may be placed, after which the foreskin is excised. T ...
. Under the leadership of Simon bar Kokhba, the rebels launched a highly organized resistance, initially achieving substantial military success. Unlike previous revolts, Jewish forces were well-prepared, employing guerrilla tactics, fortified hideouts, and an extensive network of underground hideout systems and tunnels. Bar Kokhba was declared "'' Nasi'' (Prince) of Israel" and was supported by prominent figures, including
Rabbi Akiva Akiva ben Joseph (Mishnaic Hebrew: ; – 28 September 135 CE), also known as Rabbi Akiva (), was a leading Jewish scholar and sage, a '' tanna'' of the latter part of the first century and the beginning of the second. Rabbi Akiva was a leadin ...
, one of the most revered sages of the time, who identified him as the
Messiah In Abrahamic religions, a messiah or messias (; , ; , ; ) is a saviour or liberator of a group of people. The concepts of '' mashiach'', messianism, and of a Messianic Age originated in Judaism, and in the Hebrew Bible, in which a ''mashiach ...
, a figure in
Jewish eschatology Jewish eschatology is the area of Jewish philosophy, Jewish theology concerned with events that will happen in the Eschatology, end of days and related concepts. This includes the ingathering of the exiled Jewish diaspora, diaspora, the coming ...
who stems from the
Davidic line The Davidic line refers to the descendants of David, who established the House of David ( ) in the Kingdom of Israel (united monarchy), Kingdom of Israel and the Kingdom of Judah. In Judaism, the lineage is based on texts from the Hebrew Bible ...
and will restore the Kingdom of Israel and usher the
Messianic age In Abrahamic religions, the Messianic Age () is the future eternal period of time on Earth in which the messiah will reign and bring universal peace and brotherhood, without any evil (through mankind's own terms). Many believe that there will be s ...
. The rebels succeeded in establishing a short-lived independent Jewish state, exerting control over much of southern and central Judaea. As a symbol of sovereignty, they issued coinage bearing Jewish iconography and inscriptions affirming independence, reminiscent of those minted during the First Jewish Revolt. The insurgency presented an acute challenge to the Romans. Hadrian took the time to assemble a vast force under Sextus Julius Severus, comprising six full legions, auxiliaries, and reinforcements from up to six additional legions, and then launched a campaign of systematic devastation of Judaea. In 135 CE, after a brutal siege, the Jewish fortress of
Betar The Betar Movement (), also spelled Beitar (), is a Revisionist Zionism, Revisionist Zionist youth movement founded in 1923 in Riga, Latvia, by Ze'ev Jabotinsky, Vladimir (Ze'ev) Jabotinsky. It was one of several right-wing youth movements tha ...
fell and Bar Kokhba died. Some rebels, having retreated into refuge caves in the Judaean Desert, were besieged and starved by Roman forces.


Aftermath

The Jewish-Roman wars profoundly transformed the Jewish people, converting a once-prominent population in the Eastern Mediterranean into a dispersed and persecuted minority. These conflicts caused extensive casualties and destruction throughout Judea and led to mass displacement and the enslavement of many. While the First Jewish-Roman War devastated Jerusalem—destroying the center of Jewish political, national, and religious life—the Bar Kokhba revolt had even more catastrophic consequences, effectively depopulating Judea, the core of the Jewish homeland, of its Jewish population. The consequences for the Jews of Judaea were catastrophic, characterized by widespread destruction and mass slaughter, which some historians regard as genocidal in scope. According to surviving ancient accounts, hundreds of thousands of Jews perished, while countless others were enslaved or exiled. The region of Judea (as opposed to the entire province) was heavily depopulated, with surviving Jewish communities largely concentrated in Galilee. The defeat marked a turning point in Jewish history, leading to a shift in messianic expectations and the development of a more cautious, conservative rabbinical approach to political resistance. The war and its aftermath accelerated the emergence of
early Christianity Early Christianity, otherwise called the Early Church or Paleo-Christianity, describes the History of Christianity, historical era of the Christianity, Christian religion up to the First Council of Nicaea in 325. Spread of Christianity, Christian ...
as a distinct religion from Judaism. Roman reprisals included severe religious restrictions, such as bans on circumcision and Shabbat observance. Hadrian completed the transformation of Jerusalem into Aelia Capitolina, barring Jews from entering and settling foreign populations there. At the former Jewish sanctuary on the
Temple Mount The Temple Mount (), also known as the Noble Sanctuary (Arabic: الحرم الشريف, 'Haram al-Sharif'), and sometimes as Jerusalem's holy esplanade, is a hill in the Old City of Jerusalem, Old City of Jerusalem that has been venerated as a ...
he installed two statues, one of
Jupiter Jupiter is the fifth planet from the Sun and the List of Solar System objects by size, largest in the Solar System. It is a gas giant with a Jupiter mass, mass more than 2.5 times that of all the other planets in the Solar System combined a ...
and another of himself. The designation Syria-Palaestina was applied to the former Roman province of Judaea during the early 2nd century CE. This has been interpreted as a punitive move to remove the memory of Judaea and sever Jewish ties to the land,H.H. Ben-Sasson, ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, 1976, , p. 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature."Ariel Lewin. ''The archaeology of Ancient Judea and Palestine''. Getty Publications, 2005 p. 33. "It seems clear that by choosing a seemingly neutral name—one juxtaposing that of a neighboring province with the revived name of an ancient geographical entity (Palestine), already known from the writings of Herodotus—Hadrian was intending to suppress any connection between the Jewish people and that land." a decision attributed to
Emperor Hadrian Hadrian ( ; ; 24 January 76 – 10 July 138) was Roman emperor from 117 to 138. Hadrian was born in Italica, close to modern Seville in Spain, an Italic peoples, Italic settlement in Hispania Baetica; his branch of the Aelia gens, Aelia '' ...
. de Vaux, Roland (1978), ''The Early History of Israel'', p. 2: "After the revolt of Bar Cochba in 135, the Roman province of Judaea was renamed Palestinian Syria." Sharon, Moshe (1988). Pillars of Smoke and Fire: The Holy Land in History and Thought. Ben-Sasson, H.H. (1976). ''A History of the Jewish People'', Harvard University Press, , page 334: "In an effort to wipe out all memory of the bond between the Jews and the land, Hadrian changed the name of the province from Judaea to Syria-Palestina, a name that became common in non-Jewish literature." However, no conclusive evidence exists to confirm the precise timing or authority behind the change, and it is possible the renaming occurred even before the revolt ended. Other scholars dispute the name change being punitive, noting that the name Palestine had long been used to describe the southern Levant even during the Classical era. The term appears in Classical sources like
Herodotus Herodotus (; BC) was a Greek historian and geographer from the Greek city of Halicarnassus (now Bodrum, Turkey), under Persian control in the 5th century BC, and a later citizen of Thurii in modern Calabria, Italy. He wrote the '' Histori ...
and was also used by Jewish authors such as
Philo Philo of Alexandria (; ; ; ), also called , was a Hellenistic Jewish philosopher who lived in Alexandria, in the Roman province of Egypt. The only event in Philo's life that can be decisively dated is his representation of the Alexandrian J ...
and
Josephus Flavius Josephus (; , ; ), born Yosef ben Mattityahu (), was a Roman–Jewish historian and military leader. Best known for writing '' The Jewish War'', he was born in Jerusalem—then part of the Roman province of Judea—to a father of pr ...
while Judaea was still a province. From this perspective, the decision may have been administrative, reflecting the broader territorial scope of the new province after its merger with Galilee. The destruction of the Temple was a watershed moment in Jewish history, transforming both religious practice and social structure. The Temple stood at the heart of Jewish religious and national life, serving as the center for sacrificial worship that had been central to Judaism for centuries, and as the primary symbol of Jewish sovereignty. Its loss created a vacuum that demanded a reimagining of Jewish life. This episode also ended Jewish sectarianism: The
Sadducees The Sadducees (; ) were a sect of Jews active in Judea during the Second Temple period, from the second century BCE to the destruction of the Second Temple in 70 CE. The Sadducees are described in contemporary literary sources in contrast to ...
, whose authority and prestige were linked to the Temple, vanished as a distinct group, as did the ascetic
Essenes The Essenes (; Hebrew: , ''ʾĪssīyīm''; Greek: Ἐσσηνοί, Ἐσσαῖοι, or Ὀσσαῖοι, ''Essenoi, Essaioi, Ossaioi'') or Essenians were a mystic Jewish sect during the Second Temple period that flourished from the 2nd cent ...
. However, the
Pharisees The Pharisees (; ) were a Jews, Jewish social movement and school of thought in the Levant during the time of Second Temple Judaism. Following the Siege of Jerusalem (AD 70), destruction of the Second Temple in 70 AD, Pharisaic beliefs became ...
, who had generally opposed the first revolt, emerged as the dominant religious force. Their emphasis on prayer, scriptural interpretation, and religious law proved crucial for Judaism's survival. Under their successors, the
rabbi A rabbi (; ) is a spiritual leader or religious teacher in Judaism. One becomes a rabbi by being ordained by another rabbi—known as ''semikha''—following a course of study of Jewish history and texts such as the Talmud. The basic form of t ...
s, Judaism underwent a reconstruction that enabled it to flourish without its central institution. This transformation centered on elements that could be practiced anywhere:
prayer File:Prayers-collage.png, 300px, alt=Collage of various religionists praying – Clickable Image, Collage of various religionists praying ''(Clickable image – use cursor to identify.)'' rect 0 0 1000 1000 Shinto festivalgoer praying in front ...
as a substitute for sacrifice, Torah study, and the performance of good deeds. The
synagogue A synagogue, also called a shul or a temple, is a place of worship for Jews and Samaritans. It is a place for prayer (the main sanctuary and sometimes smaller chapels) where Jews attend religious services or special ceremonies such as wed ...
, which had already existed as an institution during the Second Temple period, grew in prominence, becoming a central venue for Jewish worship and communal life. These changes established patterns of religious practice that would sustain and shape Jewish life for millennia, even as Jews faced further exile and dispersion from the Land of Israel. The
Tosefta The Tosefta ( "supplement, addition") is a compilation of Jewish Oral Law from the late second century, the period of the Mishnah and the Jewish sages known as the '' Tannaim''. Background Jewish teachings of the Tannaitic period were cha ...
records 2nd century sage Rabbi Ishmael comparing "the day the Temple was destroyed" to the aftermath of the Bar Kokhba revolt, describing it as a time when the Romans were "uprooting the Torah from among us." A Tannaitic tradition attributed to Rabbi Akiva marks the Ninth of Av (Tisha B'Av) as the date of both Temple destructions; the
Mishnah The Mishnah or the Mishna (; , from the verb ''šānā'', "to study and review", also "secondary") is the first written collection of the Jewish oral traditions that are known as the Oral Torah. Having been collected in the 3rd century CE, it is ...
later expands this commemoration to include events from the Bar Kokhba revolt: "Betar was captured and the city was ploughed", referring to the fall of the final stronghold and the Roman transformation of Jerusalem into Aelia Capitolina. Another passage in the Mishnah presents the three Jewish revolts as each leading to added mourning practices in the context of weddings: as a result of the "war of Vespasian", "they forbade the crowns of the grooms and the drum"; following the "war of Quietus" (though in another manuscript, Titus), "they forbade the crowns of the brides", while "in the final war", they "forbade brides to ride in a litter inside the city."Mishnah, ''Sotah'' 9:14 (Parma manuscript) According to rabbinic tradition, a key moment in this transformation took place during the siege of Jerusalem, when the Pharisaic sage Yohanan ben Zakkai had himself smuggled out of the city in a coffin. After meeting with Vespasian and prophesying his rise to the imperial throne, Yohanan secured permission to establish an academy at
Yavne Yavne () is a city in the Central District (Israel), Central District of Israel. In 2022, it had a population of 56,232. Modern Yavne was established in 1949. It is located near the ruins of the ancient town of Yibna (known also as Jamnia and Jab ...
. This institution became a leading center of rabbinic activity, where significant enactments were introduced to reshape Jewish life and observance without the temple. Following the Bar Kokhba revolt, major centers of Jewish learning emerged in the Galilee and Babylonia, where scholars compiled the foundational texts of
rabbinic Judaism Rabbinic Judaism (), also called Rabbinism, Rabbinicism, Rabbanite Judaism, or Talmudic Judaism, is rooted in the many forms of Judaism that coexisted and together formed Second Temple Judaism in the land of Israel, giving birth to classical rabb ...
: the Mishnah (early 3rd century) and later, the
Jerusalem Jerusalem is a city in the Southern Levant, on a plateau in the Judaean Mountains between the Mediterranean Sea, Mediterranean and the Dead Sea. It is one of the List of oldest continuously inhabited cities, oldest cities in the world, and ...
and Babylonian Talmuds, which became primary sources of Jewish law and religious guidance.


See also

* History of the Jews in the Roman Empire * Siege of Jerusalem (63 BC) * Siege of Jerusalem (37 BC) * Jewish revolt against Constantius Gallus, 352 CE * Samaritan revolts, 484–572 CE * Jewish revolt against Heraclius, 614–617/625


Notes


References


Bibliography

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Further reading

* Chancey, Mark A., and Adam Porter. 2001. "The Archaeology of Roman Palestine". ''Near Eastern Archaeology'' 64: 164–203. * Goodman, Martin. 1989. "Nerva, the Fiscus Judaicus and Jewish identity". ''Journal of Roman Studies'' 79: 26–39. * Katz, Steven T., ed. 2006. ''The Cambridge History of Judaism. Vol. 4, The Late Roman-Rabbinic Period.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. * Magness, Jodi. 2012. ''The Archaeology of the Holy Land: From the Destruction of Solomon's Temple to the Muslim Conquest.'' Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. * Pucci Ben Zeev, Miriam. 2005. ''Diaspora Judaism in turmoil, 116/117 CE: Ancient sources and modern insights.'' Dudley, MA: Peeters. * Schäfer, P., ed. 2003. ''The Bar Kokhba War reconsidered: New perspectives on the Second Jewish Revolt against Rome.'' Tübingen, Germany: Mohr Siebeck. * Tsafrir, Yoram. 1988. ''Eretz Israel from the Destruction of the Second Temple until the Muslim Conquest. Vol. 2, Archaeology and Art.'' Jerusalem: Yad Ben Zvi. {{DEFAULTSORT:Jewish-Roman wars 60s conflicts 70s conflicts Jews and Judaism in the Roman Empire 60s in the Roman Empire 70s in the Roman Empire 110s in the Roman Empire 130s in the Roman Empire 1st-century Judaism 2nd-century Judaism 110s conflicts 130s conflicts