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''Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits'' () is a book by 19th-century philosopher
Friedrich Nietzsche Friedrich Wilhelm Nietzsche (15 October 1844 – 25 August 1900) was a German philosopher. He began his career as a classical philology, classical philologist, turning to philosophy early in his academic career. In 1869, aged 24, Nietzsche bec ...
, originally published in 1878. A second part, ''Assorted Opinions and Maxims'' (), was published in 1879, and a third part, ''The Wanderer and his Shadow'' (), followed in 1880.Nietzsche, Friedrich. 8781908.
Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits
', translated by A. Harvey. Chicago: Charles H. Kerr & Co. . .
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001386232
Retrieved 20 August 2020.
The book is Nietzsche's first in the aphoristic style that would come to dominate his writings, discussing a variety of concepts in short paragraphs or sayings. Reflecting an admiration of
Voltaire François-Marie Arouet (; 21 November 169430 May 1778), known by his ''Pen name, nom de plume'' Voltaire (, ; ), was a French Age of Enlightenment, Enlightenment writer, philosopher (''philosophe''), satirist, and historian. Famous for his wit ...
as a free thinker, but also a break in his friendship with composer
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...
two years earlier, Nietzsche dedicated the original 1878 edition of ''Human, All Too Human'' "to the memory of Voltaire on the celebration of the anniversary of his death, May 30, 1778". Instead of a preface, the first part originally included a quotation from Descartes's ''
Discourse on the Method ''Discourse on the Method of Rightly Conducting One's Reason and of Seeking Truth in the Sciences'' () is a philosophical and autobiographical treatise published by René Descartes in 1637. It is best known as the source of the famous quotation ...
''. Nietzsche later republished all three parts as a two-volume edition in 1886, adding a preface to each volume, and removing the Descartes quotation as well as the dedication to Voltaire.


Background

In 1876, Nietzsche broke with Wagner, and in the same year his increasingly bad health (possibly the early effects of a brain tumor) compelled him to request a leave of absence from his academic duties at the
University of Basel The University of Basel (Latin: ''Universitas Basiliensis''; German: ''Universität Basel'') is a public research university in Basel, Switzerland. Founded on 4 April 1460, it is Switzerland's oldest university and among the world's oldest univ ...
. In the autumn of 1876, he joined his friend Paul Rée in
Sorrento Sorrento ( , ; ; ) is a City status in Italy, city and overlooking the Gulf of Naples, Bay of Naples in Southern Italy. A popular tourist destination, Sorrento is located on the Sorrentine Peninsula at the southern terminus of a main branch o ...
, at the home of a wealthy patron of the arts, Malwida von Meysenbug, and began work on ''Human, All Too Human''.


Inspiration

The genre of the
aphorism An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...
was already well established at the time of writing this book: in the German tradition, Nietzsche's most important predecessor was a figure of the Enlightenment,
Georg Christoph Lichtenberg Georg Christoph Lichtenberg (; 1 July 1742 – 24 February 1799) was a German physicist, satirist, and Anglophile. He was the first person in Germany to hold a professorship explicitly dedicated to experimental physics. He is remembered for his p ...
, whose writing Nietzsche greatly admired. Nietzsche's work is indebted also to Schopenhauer's, particularly his ''Aphorisms for Practical Wisdom'' (1851). Above all else is the "debt to the French tradition of the aphorism – for Nietzsche's work is a deliberate turn westward". Nietzsche cites the French aphorists Jean de La Bruyère and Prosper Mérimée, and in Aphorism 221 celebrates Voltaire. At the beginning of the second section, Nietzsche mentions La Rochefoucauld—named here as a model, the epitome of the aphorist—and it is known that Nietzsche had a copy of La Rochefoucauld's ''Sentences et maximes'' (1665) in his library. He had been reading it shortly before beginning to write ''Human, All Too Human'', on the train ride to Sorrento. More than that of the other French aphorists mentioned, it is La Rochefoucauld's work that lies behind that of Nietzsche.


Style

Unlike his first book, '' The Birth of Tragedy'', which was written in
essay An essay ( ) is, generally, a piece of writing that gives the author's own argument, but the definition is vague, overlapping with those of a Letter (message), letter, a term paper, paper, an article (publishing), article, a pamphlet, and a s ...
style, ''Human, All Too Human'' is a collection of
aphorism An aphorism (from Greek ἀφορισμός: ''aphorismos'', denoting 'delimitation', 'distinction', and 'definition') is a concise, terse, laconic, or memorable expression of a general truth or principle. Aphorisms are often handed down by tra ...
s, a style which Nietzsche would use in many of his subsequent works. The aphorisms of ''Human, All Too Human'' range from a few words to a few pages, but most are short paragraphs. The 638 aphorisms of the first installment are divided by subject into nine sections, with a short poem as an epilogue. The eponymous phrase itself appears in Aphorism 35 (originally conceived as the first aphorism) "when Nietzsche observes that maxims about human nature can help in overcoming life's hard moments". Implicit also, is a drive to overcome what is ''human, all too human'' through understanding it, through philosophy. The second and third installments are an additional 408 and 350 aphorisms respectively. Nietzsche's work, while inspired by the work of aphorists like La Rochefoucauld who came before him, "is unique";
covers a range of issues far greater than the social and psychological area of interest to La Rochefoucauld. To the cynicism typical of the genre, Nietzsche brings a new dimension by his combination of
nihilistic Nihilism () encompasses various views that reject certain aspects of existence. There have been different nihilist positions, including the views that life is meaningless, that moral values are baseless, and that knowledge is impossible. Thes ...
energy with historical consciousness. Finally, he expands the genre to include not merely insights, but argument as well."
The aphorism "allows for a loosely organised, shifting whole containing specific ideas but no iron-clad explanation for everything, – tconstitutes the style that best represents his philosophy". This book represents the beginning of Nietzsche's 'middle period', with a break from
German Romanticism German Romanticism () was the dominant intellectual movement of German-speaking countries in the late 18th and early 19th centuries, influencing philosophy, aesthetics, literature, and criticism. Compared to English Romanticism, the German vari ...
and from Wagner and with a definite positivist slant. Reluctant to construct a
systematic philosophy Philosophical methodology encompasses the methods used to philosophize and the study of these methods. Methods of philosophy are procedures for conducting research, creating new theories, and selecting between competing theories. In addition to ...
, this book comprises more a collection of debunkings of unwarranted assumptions than an interpretation; it "contains the seeds of concepts crucial to Nietzsche's later philosophy, such as the need to transcend conventional
Christian morality Christian ethics, also known as moral theology, is a multi-faceted ethical system. It is a Virtue ethics, virtue ethic, which focuses on building moral character, and a Deontological ethics, deontological ethic which emphasizes duty according ...
". He uses his
perspectivism Perspectivism (also called perspectivalism) is the epistemological principle that perception of and knowledge of something are always bound to the interpretive perspectives of those observing it. While perspectivism regard all perspectives and ...
and the idea of
the will to power The will to power () is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. The will to power describes what Nietzsche may have believed to be the main driving force in humans. However, the concept was never systematically defined in Nietzsche's ...
as explanatory devices, though the latter remains less developed than in his later thought.


Structure and content


Of First and Last Things

In this first section, Nietzsche deals with
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...
, specifically its origins as relating to dreams, the dissatisfaction with oneself, and language as well.


On the History of Moral Feelings

This section, named in honor of his friend Paul Rée's ''On the Origin of Moral Sensations'', Nietzsche challenges the Christian idea of good and evil, as it was philosophized by
Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788 – 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon, phenomenal world as ...
.
''At the waterfall.'' When we see a waterfall, we think we see freedom of will and choice in the innumerable turnings, windings, breakings of the waves; but everything is necessary; each movement can be calculated mathematically. Thus it is with human actions; if one were omniscient, one would be able to calculate each individual action in advance, each step in the progress of knowledge, each error, each act of malice. To be sure the acting man is caught in his illusion of volition; if the wheel of the world were to stand still for a moment and an omniscient, calculating mind were there to take advantage of this interruption, he would be able to tell into the farthest future of each being and describe every rut that wheel will roll upon. The acting man's delusion about himself, his assumption that free will exists, is also part of the calculable mechanism.


From the Soul of Artists and Writers

Nietzsche uses this section to denounce the idea of divine inspiration in art, claiming that great art is the result of hard work, not a higher power or '
genius Genius is a characteristic of original and exceptional insight in the performance of some art or endeavor that surpasses expectations, sets new standards for the future, establishes better methods of operation, or remains outside the capabiliti ...
'. This can be interpreted as a veiled attack on his former friend Wagner (a strong believer in genius), though Nietzsche never mentions him by name, instead simply using the term 'the artist'.


Signs of Higher and Lower Culture

Here, Nietzsche criticizes
Charles Darwin Charles Robert Darwin ( ; 12 February 1809 – 19 April 1882) was an English Natural history#Before 1900, naturalist, geologist, and biologist, widely known for his contributions to evolutionary biology. His proposition that all speci ...
, as he frequently does, for being naive and derivative of
Thomas Hobbes Thomas Hobbes ( ; 5 April 1588 – 4 December 1679) was an English philosopher, best known for his 1651 book ''Leviathan (Hobbes book), Leviathan'', in which he expounds an influential formulation of social contract theory. He is considered t ...
and early English economists, as well as for being without an account of life from the 'inside'. Consider, in this light, Darwin's own introduction to the first edition of '' Origin''; also Nietzsche's critique to the effect that
Darwinism ''Darwinism'' is a term used to describe a theory of biological evolution developed by the English naturalist Charles Darwin (1809–1882) and others. The theory states that all species of organisms arise and develop through the natural sel ...
, as typically understood, is trading in a new version of the
Providential Providential (February 6, 1977 – May 1998) was an Ireland, Irish-born Thoroughbred Horse racing, racehorse who competed successfully in France and won the most important race on turf in the United States. Bred and raced by Bertram & Diana Fir ...
:
Wherever
progress Progress is movement towards a perceived refined, improved, or otherwise desired state. It is central to the philosophy of progressivism, which interprets progress as the set of advancements in technology, science, and social organization effic ...
is to ensue, deviating natures are of greatest importance. Every progress of the whole must be preceded by a partial weakening. The strongest natures retain the type, the weaker ones help to advance it. Something similar also happens in the individual. There is rarely a degeneration, a truncation, or even a vice or any physical or 'moral' loss without an advantage somewhere else. In a warlike and restless clan, for example, the sicklier man may have occasion to be alone, and may therefore become quieter and wiser; the one-eyed man will have one eye the stronger; the blind man may see deeper inwardly, and certainly hear better. To this extent, the famous theory of the
survival of the fittest "Survival of the fittest" is a phrase that originated from Darwinian evolutionary theory as a way of describing the mechanism of natural selection. The biological concept of fitness is defined as reproductive success. In Darwinian terms, th ...
does not seem to be the only viewpoint from which to explain the progress of strengthening of a man or of a race.
Nietzsche writes of the 'free spirit' or ' free thinker' (), and his role in society; a sort of proto-
Übermensch The ( , ; 'Overman' or 'Superman') is a concept in the philosophy of Friedrich Nietzsche. In his 1883 book, '' Thus Spoke Zarathustra'' (), Nietzsche has his character Zarathustra posit the as a goal for humanity to set for itself. The repre ...
, forming the basis of a concept he extensively explores in his later work, ''
Thus Spoke Zarathustra ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None'' (), also translated as ''Thus Spake Zarathustra'', is a work of philosophical fiction written by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; it was published in four volumes between 1883 and 1885. ...
''. A free spirit is one who goes against the herd, and "onwards along the path of wisdom" in order to better society. 'Better', for Nietzsche, appears to mean ordered toward the production of rare genius and is hardly to be confused with what 'a newspaper reader' as Nietzsche might put it, would expect. The essential thing to keep in mind in considering
Zarathustra Zarathushtra Spitama, more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra, was an Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion, becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. Variously descr ...
, in particular, is that Nietzsche presents Zarathustra as ''failing''.


Man in Society and Women and Child

These two sections are made up of very short aphorisms on men's, women's and the child's nature or their 'evolution' in Nietzsche's subtle, anti-Darwinian sense. Scholar Ruth Abbey has commented of works from Nietzsche's 'middle period' that, "Contrary to the common classification of Nietzsche as a misogynist, the works of the middle period do not openly denigrate or dismiss women... Nietzsche's views on women were at this time more nuanced and less vitriolic than they became". In this section, Nietzsche remarks that the perfect woman is a "higher type of human being than the perfect man: also something much rarer".


Man Alone with Himself

Like sections six and seven, Nietzsche's aphorisms here are mostly short, but also poetic and at times could be interpreted as semi-autobiographical, in anticipation of the next volumes: "He who has come only in part to a freedom of reason cannot feel on earth otherwise than as a wanderer". Nietzsche also distinguishes the
obscurantism In philosophy, obscurantism or obscurationism is the Anti-intellectualism, anti-intellectual practice of deliberately presenting information in an wikt:abstruse, abstruse and imprecise manner that limits further inquiry and understanding of a subj ...
of the metaphysicians and
theologian Theology is the study of religious belief from a religious perspective, with a focus on the nature of divinity. It is taught as an academic discipline, typically in universities and seminaries. It occupies itself with the unique content of ...
s from the more subtle obscurantism of
Kant Immanuel Kant (born Emanuel Kant; 22 April 1724 – 12 February 1804) was a German philosopher and one of the central Enlightenment thinkers. Born in Königsberg, Kant's comprehensive and systematic works in epistemology, metaphysics, et ...
's
critical philosophy Critical philosophy () is a movement inaugurated by Immanuel Kant (1724–1804). It is dedicated to the self-examination of reason with the aim of exposing its inherent limitations, that is, to defining the possibilities of knowledge as a prere ...
and modern
philosophical skepticism Philosophical skepticism (UK spelling: scepticism; from Ancient Greek, Greek σκέψις ''skepsis'', "inquiry") is a family of philosophical views that question the possibility of knowledge. It differs from other forms of skepticism in that ...
, claiming that obscurantism is that which obscures existence rather than obscures ideas alone: "The essential element in the black art of obscurantism is not that it wants to darken individual understanding but that it wants to blacken our picture of the world, and darken our idea of existence".


Reception

Within his lifetime, prior to his mental breakdown in 1889, few of Nietzsche's books sold particularly well, and ''Human, All Too Human'' was no exception. The first installment was originally printed in 1,000 copies in 1878, selling only 120 at the time, and selling less than half by 1886, when it was resold as the complete two-volume set. Though his friendship with
Richard Wagner Wilhelm Richard Wagner ( ; ; 22 May 181313 February 1883) was a German composer, theatre director, essayist, and conductor who is chiefly known for his operas (or, as some of his mature works were later known, "music dramas"). Unlike most o ...
was nearly over, Wagner actually received a signed copy. Although he did not read it at first, saying Nietzsche would thank him for this one day, Wagner would later quote and respond to it in a number of works.


Oehler and Nazism

Most notoriously, ''Human, All Too Human'' was used by archivist Max Oehler, a strong supporter of
Hitler Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his suicide in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the lea ...
, as supposed evidence of Nietzsche's support for
nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
and
anti-Semitism Antisemitism or Jew-hatred is hostility to, prejudice towards, or discrimination against Jews. A person who harbours it is called an antisemite. Whether antisemitism is considered a form of racism depends on the school of thought. Antisemi ...
, both of which he writes against. Oehler wrote an entire book, ('Friedrich Nietzsche and the German Future'), dealing with Nietzsche and his connection to nationalism (specifically
National Socialism Nazism (), formally named National Socialism (NS; , ), is the far-right totalitarian socio-political ideology and practices associated with Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party (NSDAP) in Germany. During Hitler's rise to power, it was frequ ...
) and anti-Semitism, using quotes from ''Human, All Too Human'', though out of context. Nietzsche would speak against anti-Semitism in other works including ''
Thus Spoke Zarathustra ''Thus Spoke Zarathustra: A Book for All and None'' (), also translated as ''Thus Spake Zarathustra'', is a work of philosophical fiction written by German philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche; it was published in four volumes between 1883 and 1885. ...
'' and, most strongly, in '' The Antichrist'': "An anti-Semite is certainly not any more decent because he lies as a matter of principle". In ''
Zarathustra Zarathushtra Spitama, more commonly known as Zoroaster or Zarathustra, was an Iranian religious reformer who challenged the tenets of the contemporary Ancient Iranian religion, becoming the spiritual founder of Zoroastrianism. Variously descr ...
'', Nietzsche set Wagner up as a straw man, lampooning his anti-Semitism in the process. Oehler also had control of Nietzsche's archive during the Nazis' rule, which he shared with Nietzsche's sister,
Elisabeth Förster-Nietzsche Therese Elisabeth Alexandra Förster-Nietzsche (10 July 1846 – 8 November 1935) was the sister of philosopher Friedrich Nietzsche and the creator of the Nietzsche Archive in 1894. Förster-Nietzsche was two years younger than her brother ...
, a Hitler supporter herself, until her death, when he took it over. It was not until much of Walter Kaufmann's work in the 1950s through the 1970s that Nietzsche was able to shed this connection with nationalism and anti-Semitism.


Translations

The work was first translated into English in 1908 by Alexander Harvey, a Belgian-born American journalist, and was published in Chicago by Charles. H. Kerr, a small but notable publishing house of socially progressive literature. Following this, a 1909 translation by writer Helen Zimmern was published as part of a complete edition of Nietzsche's books in English. The book was not translated in full by Walter Kaufmann when he translated most of Nietzsche's works into English in the 1950s and 1960s. However, Kaufmann included excerpts from it in his edition of ''The Portable Nietzsche'' (New York: The Viking Press, 1954). During the 1980s, the first part of the book was translated by Marion Faber and the whole work was translated by R.J. Hollingdale. Faber was critical of Zimmern's "antiquated Victorian style" which, in her opinion, makes Nietzsche read "like a fusty contemporary of
Matthew Arnold Matthew Arnold (24 December 1822 – 15 April 1888) was an English poet and cultural critic. He was the son of Thomas Arnold, the headmaster of Rugby School, and brother to both Tom Arnold (academic), Tom Arnold, literary professor, and Willi ...
". Faber further noted bowdlerizations and errors in Zimmern's work. For example, in Aphorism 61, ''Schaf'' ("sheep") is translated by Zimmern as ''fool'', where the reference is to
Sophocles Sophocles ( 497/496 – winter 406/405 BC)Sommerstein (2002), p. 41. was an ancient Greek tragedian known as one of three from whom at least two plays have survived in full. His first plays were written later than, or contemporary with, those ...
' play ''
Ajax Ajax may refer to: Greek mythology and tragedy * Ajax the Great, a Greek mythological hero, son of King Telamon and Periboea * Ajax the Lesser, a Greek mythological hero, son of Oileus, the king of Locris * Ajax (play), ''Ajax'' (play), by the an ...
'' in which the hero charges a herd of sheep.


In popular culture


References


Bibliography

* * *


Sources

* Copleston, Frederick C.
963 Year 963 (Roman numerals, CMLXIII) was a common year starting on Thursday of the Julian calendar. Events By place Byzantine Empire * March 15 – Emperor Romanos II dies at age 39, probably of poison administered by his wife, Emp ...
2003. '' Modern Philosophy: From the Post-Kantian Idealists to Marx, Kierkegaard, and Nietzsche'', A History of Philosophy, vol. VII. London: Continuum. . * Craig, Gordon A. 1978. ''Germany: 1866-1945''. Oxford: Oxford University Press. * Kaufmann, Walter A. 1974. '' Nietzsche: Philosopher, Psychologist, Antichrist'' (4th ed.). Princeton: Princeton University Press. * —— ed. and trans. 1954. ''The Portable Nietzsche''. New York: Viking Press. * —— ed. and trans. 2000. ''Basic Writings of Nietzsche''. New York: Modern Library. * Nietzsche, Friedrich W. 8781984. ''Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits'', translated by M. Faber and S. Lehmann. Lincoln: University of Nebraska Press. * —— 1996. ''Human, All Too Human: A Book for Free Spirits'', translated by R. J. Hollingdale. Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. * * Tanner, Michael, et al. 1997. ''German Philosophers: Kant, Hegel, Schopenhauer, Nietzsche''. Oxford: Oxford University Press.


External links

* * * *
Friedrich Nietzsche
by Robert Wicks. ''
The Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy The ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'' (''SEP'') is a freely available online philosophy resource published and maintained by Stanford University, encompassing both an online encyclopedia of philosophy and peer-reviewed original publication ...
'', edited by Edward N. Zalta. {{Authority control 1878 non-fiction books Books by Friedrich Nietzsche Books of aphorisms Books critical of Christianity Philosophy books Works subject to expurgation