Horace Bénédict De Saussure
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Horace Bénédict de Saussure (; 17 February 1740 – 22 January 1799) was a Genevan
geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the structure, composition, and History of Earth, history of Earth. Geologists incorporate techniques from physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and geography to perform research in the Field research, ...
,
meteorologist A meteorologist is a scientist who studies and works in the field of meteorology aiming to understand or predict Earth's atmosphere of Earth, atmospheric phenomena including the weather. Those who study meteorological phenomena are meteorologists ...
,
physicist A physicist is a scientist who specializes in the field of physics, which encompasses the interactions of matter and energy at all length and time scales in the physical universe. Physicists generally are interested in the root or ultimate cau ...
, mountaineer and Alpine explorer, often called the founder of alpinism and modern meteorology, and considered to be the first person to build a successful solar oven.


Early life and education

Horace Bénédict de Saussure was born 17 February 1740, in Conches, near
Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
(''today in Switzerland but then an independent republic''). Saussure's family were Genevan patricians. His father, Nicolas de Saussure, was an
agriculturist An agriculturist, agriculturalist, agrologist, or agronomist (abbreviated as agr.) is a professional in the Agricultural science, science, practice, and management of Farming, agriculture and agribusiness. It is a regulated profession in Canada, ...
,
agronomist An agriculturist, agriculturalist, agrologist, or agronomist (abbreviated as agr.) is a professional in the science, practice, and management of agriculture and agribusiness. It is a regulated profession in Canada, India, the Philippines, the Uni ...
and author. Because his mother was "sickly", Saussure was brought up by his mother's sister and her husband the Genevan naturalist Charles Bonnet, who sparked Horace-Bénédict's early interest in botany. After attending the "Collège" of his hometown, he completed his studies at the Geneva Academy in 1759 with a dissertation on heat (''Dissertatio physica de igne'').


Career

In 1760, Saussure made the first of numerous trips to
Chamonix Chamonix-Mont-Blanc (; ; (no longer in use)), more commonly known simply as Chamonix (), is a communes of France, commune in the departments of France, department in the regions of France, region in Southeastern France. It was the site of the f ...
valley, to collect plant specimens for the noted Swiss anatomist, physiologist and botanist
Albrecht von Haller Albrecht von Haller (also known as Albertus de Haller; 16 October 170812 December 1777) was a Swiss anatomist, physiologist, naturalist, encyclopedist, bibliographer and poet. A pupil of Herman Boerhaave and Jacob Winslow, he is sometimes r ...
.Douglas W. Freshfield, ''Horace-Bénédict de Saussure'', éd. Slatkine, 2005 p. 60. In 1760, Saussure offered a reward to the first man to reach the summit of
Mont Blanc Mont Blanc (, ) is a mountain in the Alps, rising above sea level, located right at the Franco-Italian border. It is the highest mountain in Europe outside the Caucasus Mountains, the second-most prominent mountain in Europe (after Mount E ...
. Inspired by his uncle, Charles Bonnet, the young Saussure researched the physiology of plants which he published as ''Observations sur l'écorce des feuilles et des pétales'' in 1762. The same year, at 22, he was elected professor of philosophy at the "Academy of Geneva", where he lectured on
physics Physics is the scientific study of matter, its Elementary particle, fundamental constituents, its motion and behavior through space and time, and the related entities of energy and force. "Physical science is that department of knowledge whi ...
one year, and on logic and
metaphysics Metaphysics is the branch of philosophy that examines the basic structure of reality. It is traditionally seen as the study of mind-independent features of the world, but some theorists view it as an inquiry into the conceptual framework of ...
the next. He taught there until 1786, occasionally also lecturing on geography, geology, chemistry, and even astronomy. Saussure's early interest in botanical studies and glaciers soon led him to undertake other journeys across the
Alps The Alps () are some of the highest and most extensive mountain ranges in Europe, stretching approximately across eight Alpine countries (from west to east): Monaco, France, Switzerland, Italy, Liechtenstein, Germany, Austria and Slovenia. ...
. In 1767, he completed his first tour of Mont Blanc, a trip that did much to reveal the
topography Topography is the study of the forms and features of land surfaces. The topography of an area may refer to the landforms and features themselves, or a description or depiction in maps. Topography is a field of geoscience and planetary sci ...
of the snowy portions of the Alps of Savoy. He also carried out experiments on heat and cold, on the weight of the atmosphere and on electricity and
magnetism Magnetism is the class of physical attributes that occur through a magnetic field, which allows objects to attract or repel each other. Because both electric currents and magnetic moments of elementary particles give rise to a magnetic field, ...
. For this, he devised what became one of the first
electrometer An electrometer is an electrical instrument for measuring electric charge or electrical potential difference. There are many different types, ranging from historical handmade mechanical instruments to high-precision electronic devices. Modern ...
s. From 1772–1773 trips led him to Italy, where he studied
Mount Etna Mount Etna, or simply Etna ( or ; , or ; ; or ), is an active stratovolcano on the east coast of Sicily, Italy, in the Metropolitan City of Catania, between the cities of Messina, Italy, Messina and Catania. It is located above the Conve ...
and other volcanoes (1772–73), and to the extinct volcanoes of the Auvergne, in France. Although a patrician, Saussure held liberal views, which induced him to present in 1774 a plan for the development of scientific education in the Geneva College, which would be open to all citizens, but this attempt failed. He was more successful in advocating the creation of the "Société des Arts" (1776), inspired by the London Society for the Improvement of Arts. Beginning in 1774, Saussure sought to reach the summit of Mont Blanc on the side of Val Veny (now Italy) accompanied by the
Courmayeur Courmayeur (; ; Valdôtain: ) is a town and ''comune'' in northern Italy, in the autonomous region of Aosta Valley. History The toponym ''Courmayeur'' has been mentioned as ''Curia majori'' (1233–1381), ''Corte Maggiore'' (1620), ''Cormoyeu'' (1 ...
alpine guide Jean-Laurent Jordaney on the Miage Glacier and on Mont Crammont.Douglas W. Freshfield, ''Horace-Bénédict de Saussure'', éd. Slatkine, 2005, In 1776, he ascended the Buet (3,096 m). He climbed the Crammont in 1774 and again in 1778, in which year he also explored the Valsorey glacier, near the Great St Bernard. In 1780, he climbed the Roche Michel, above the Mont Cenis Pass. In 1785, he made an unsuccessful attempt on Mont Blanc by the Aiguille du Goûter route. Two Chamonix men, Michel Paccard and Jacques Balmat, attained the summit in 1786, by way of the Grands Mulets, and in 1787 Saussure himself made the third ascent of the mountain. His achievements did much to attract tourists to places such as Chamonix. In 1788, Saussure spent 17 days making meteorological observations and physical measurements on the Col du Géant (3,371 m). In 1789, Saussure climbed the Pizzo Bianco near Macugnaga, to observe the east wall of
Monte Rosa Monte Rosa (; ; ; or ; ) is a mountain massif in the eastern part of the Pennine Alps, on the border between Italy (Piedmont and Aosta Valley) and Switzerland (Valais). The highest peak of the massif, amongst several peaks of over , is the D ...
, and crossed the Theodulpass (3,322 m) to
Zermatt Zermatt (, ) is a Municipalities of Switzerland, municipality in the district of Visp (district), Visp in the German language, German-speaking section of the canton of Valais in Switzerland. It has a year-round population of about 5,800 and is cl ...
, as the first traveler to visit. On that occasion he climbed from the pass up the
Klein Matterhorn The Klein Matterhorn (sometimes translated as ''Little Matterhorn'') is a peak of the Pennine Alps, overlooking Zermatt in the Swiss canton of Valais. At above sea level, it is the highest place in Europe that can be reached by aerial tramway o ...
(3,883 m). In 1792, he spent three days making observations on the same pass without descending to Zermatt and then visited the Theodulhorn (3,472 m).


Inventions

Obsessed by the measurement of meteorological phenomena, Saussure invented and improved many kinds of apparatus, including the
magnetometer A magnetometer is a device that measures magnetic field or magnetic dipole moment. Different types of magnetometers measure the direction, strength, or relative change of a magnetic field at a particular location. A compass is one such device, ...
, He invented the cyanometer for estimating the blueness of the sky, the diaphanometer for judging the clarity of the atmosphere, the anemometer and the mountain eudiometer. Of particular importance was a hair
hygrometer A hair tension dial hygrometer with a nonlinear scale. A hygrometer is an instrument that measures humidity: that is, how much water vapor is present. Humidity measurement instruments usually rely on measurements of some other quantities, such a ...
that he devised and used for a series of investigations on atmospheric humidity, evaporation, clouds, fogs and rain (''Essais sur l'Hygrométrie'', 1783). This instrument sparked a bitter controversy with
Jean-André Deluc Jean-André Deluc or de Luc (8 February 1727 – 7 November 1817) was a geologist, natural philosopher and meteorologist from the Republic of Geneva. He also devised measuring instruments. Biography Jean-André Deluc was born in Geneva. His ...
, who had invented a whalebone hygrometer. In 1767, Saussure constructed the first known Western solar oven, trying several designs before determining that a well-insulated box with three layers of glass to trap outgoing thermal radiation produced the most heat. The highest temperature he reached was , which he found did not vary significantly when the box was carried from the top of Mont Crammont in the Swiss Alps down to the Plains of Cournier, 4,852 feet lower in altitude and warmer in temperature, thereby establishing that the external air temperature played no significant role in this solar heating effect.


Work

All of Saussure's observations and experiments from seven Alpine journeys were summed up and published in four quarto volumes, under the general title of ''Voyages dans les Alpes (1779 – 1796)'' (There was an octavo issue in eight volumes, issued from 1780 to 1796). The non-scientific portions of the work were first published in 1834, and often since, as ''Partie pittoresque des ouvrages de M. de Saussure''. The Alps were the focus of Saussure's investigations. He saw them as the grand key to the true theory of the earth, and they gave him the opportunity to study geology in a manner never previously attempted. Saussure closely examined the inclination of the
strata In geology and related fields, a stratum (: strata) is a layer of Rock (geology), rock or sediment characterized by certain Lithology, lithologic properties or attributes that distinguish it from adjacent layers from which it is separated by v ...
, the nature of the rocks, the
fossil A fossil (from Classical Latin , ) is any preserved remains, impression, or trace of any once-living thing from a past geological age. Examples include bones, shells, exoskeletons, stone imprints of animals or microbes, objects preserve ...
s and the minerals. Saussure had a thorough knowledge of the chemistry of the day and applied it to the study of minerals, water and air. His geological observations made him a firm believer in the Neptunian theory: He regarded all rocks and minerals as deposited from aqueous solution or suspension, and attached much importance to the study of meteorological conditions. His work with rocks, erosion, and fossils also led him to believe that the earth was much older than generally thought and formed part of the basis of Darwin's
Theory of Evolution Evolution is the change in the heritable characteristics of biological populations over successive generations. It occurs when evolutionary processes such as natural selection and genetic drift act on genetic variation, resulting in certai ...
. Saussure carried
barometer A barometer is a scientific instrument that is used to measure air pressure in a certain environment. Pressure tendency can forecast short term changes in the weather. Many measurements of air pressure are used within surface weather analysis ...
s and boiling-point
thermometer A thermometer is a device that measures temperature (the hotness or coldness of an object) or temperature gradient (the rates of change of temperature in space). A thermometer has two important elements: (1) a temperature sensor (e.g. the bulb ...
s to the summits of the highest mountains, and estimated the relative humidity of the atmosphere at different heights, its temperature, the strength of solar radiation, the composition of air and its transparency. Then, he investigated the temperature of the earth at all depths to which he could drive his thermometer staves, and the course, conditions and temperature of streams, rivers, glaciers and lakes, even of the sea. Saussure adapted the thermometer to many purposes: for ascertaining the temperature of the air he used one with a fine bulb hung in the shade or whirled by a string, the latter form being converted into an evaporimeter by inserting its bulb into a piece of wet sponge and making it revolve in a circle of known radius, at a known rate; for experiments on the earth and in deep water he employed large thermometers wrapped in non-conducting coatings so as to render them extremely sluggish, and capable of long retaining the temperature once they had attained it. With these instruments Saussure showed that the bottom water of deep lakes is uniformly cold at all seasons, and that seasonal changes in temperature take six months to penetrate to a depth of 30 ft. in the earth. He recognized the immense advantages to meteorology of high-level observation stations, and whenever it was practicable he arranged for simultaneous observations to be made at different altitudes for as long periods as possible. Saussure was particularly influential as a
geologist A geologist is a scientist who studies the structure, composition, and History of Earth, history of Earth. Geologists incorporate techniques from physics, chemistry, biology, mathematics, and geography to perform research in the Field research, ...
, and although his ideas on the underlying principles were often erroneous, he was instrumental in greatly advancing that science. He was an early user of the term "geology"—see the "Discours préliminaire" to volume I of his ''Voyages'', published in 1779—though by no means its inventor as some have claimed, the English word having been used in the 1680s and its Latin counterpart "geologia" during the previous several centuries.


Awards

In 1784, Saussure was elected a foreign member of the
Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences The Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences () is one of the Swedish Royal Academies, royal academies of Sweden. Founded on 2 June 1739, it is an independent, non-governmental scientific organization that takes special responsibility for promoting nat ...
; in 1788, a foreign member of the
Royal Society of London The Royal Society, formally The Royal Society of London for Improving Natural Knowledge, is a learned society and the United Kingdom's national academy of sciences. The society fulfils a number of roles: promoting science and its benefits, r ...
; in 1791, an associate foreign member of l'Académie des sciences de Paris.


Personal life and death

Saussure was married to Albertine Amelie Boissier and had three children: Albertine Necker de Saussure who was a pioneer in the education of women, Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure who became a noted specialist in plant chemistry and an early pioneer in
photosynthesis Photosynthesis ( ) is a system of biological processes by which photosynthetic organisms, such as most plants, algae, and cyanobacteria, convert light energy, typically from sunlight, into the chemical energy necessary to fuel their metabo ...
research and Alphonse Jean François de Saussure. Saussure's health began to fail in 1791, at the same time that he suffered financial losses. Saussure died in
Geneva Geneva ( , ; ) ; ; . is the List of cities in Switzerland, second-most populous city in Switzerland and the most populous in French-speaking Romandy. Situated in the southwest of the country, where the Rhône exits Lake Geneva, it is the ca ...
22 January 1799. His great-grandson
Ferdinand de Saussure Ferdinand Mongin de Saussure (; ; 26 November 185722 February 1913) was a Swiss linguist, semiotician and philosopher. His ideas laid a foundation for many significant developments in both linguistics and semiotics in the 20th century. He is wi ...
(1857 – 1913) was an important linguist and
semiotician Semiotics ( ) is the systematic study of sign processes and the communication of meaning. In semiotics, a sign is defined as anything that communicates intentional and unintentional meaning or feelings to the sign's interpreter. Semiosis is an ...
.


Recognition

The
genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#ICTV classification, viruses. In bino ...
of plants '' Saussurea'', some adapted to growing in extreme high-alpine climates, is named after him and his plant-physiologist son Nicolas-Théodore de Saussure. The Alpine Botanical Garden Saussurea, located at Pavillon du Mont Fréty, first station for the Skyway Monte Bianco cable car, in
Courmayeur Courmayeur (; ; Valdôtain: ) is a town and ''comune'' in northern Italy, in the autonomous region of Aosta Valley. History The toponym ''Courmayeur'' has been mentioned as ''Curia majori'' (1233–1381), ''Corte Maggiore'' (1620), ''Cormoyeu'' (1 ...
, Aosta Valley, is named after him. His work as a mineralogist was also recognized in that Saussurite is named after him. The lunar crater Saussure is named after him. Saussure was honoured by being depicted on the 20 Swiss franc banknote of the sixth issue of
Swiss National Bank The Swiss National Bank (SNB; ; ; ; ) is the central bank of Switzerland, responsible for the nation's monetary policy and the sole issuer of Swiss franc banknotes. The primary goal of its mandate is to ensure price stability, while taking econ ...
notes (1979 to 1995, when replaced by the eighth issue; the notes were recalled in 2000 and became valueless on 1 May 2020).


Trivia

In his ''
On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason ''On the Fourfold Root of the Principle of Sufficient Reason'' () is an elaboration on the classical principle of sufficient reason, written by German philosopher Arthur Schopenhauer as his doctoral dissertation in 1813. The principle of sufficie ...
'', while discussing how reason affects our perception of distance,
Arthur Schopenhauer Arthur Schopenhauer ( ; ; 22 February 1788 â€“ 21 September 1860) was a German philosopher. He is known for his 1818 work ''The World as Will and Representation'' (expanded in 1844), which characterizes the Phenomenon, phenomenal world as ...
includes an anecdote that Saussure, "when on the Mont Blanc,... saw so enormous a moon rise, that, not recognizing what it was, he fainted with terror".


Notes


References

* ''Lives'' by J Senebier (Geneva, 1801), by Cuvier in the ''Biographie universelle'', and by A. P. de Candolle in ''Décade philosophique'' * * articles by E. Naville in the ''Bibliothèque universelle'' (March, April, May 1883) * chaps. v.-viii. of Ch. Durier's ''Le Mont-Blanc'' (Paris, various editions between 1877 and 1897). * * René Sigrist, ''Le capteur solaire de Horace-Bénédict de Saussure. Genèse d'une science empirique''. Geneva, Passé-Présent / Jullien, 1993. * Albert V. Carozzi & Gerda Bouvier, ''The scientific library of Horace-Bénédict de Saussure (1797): annotated catalog of an 18th-century bibliographic and historic treasure'', Geneva, 1994 (''Mémoires de la SPHN'', t. 46). * René Sigrist (ed.), ''H.-B. de Saussure (1740–1799): un regard sur la terre''. Geneva, Georg, 2001.


External links


Pictures and texts of "Les Voyages dans les Alpes" by H. B. de Saussure can be found in the database VIATIMAGES
(archived from ''www3.unil.ch'')

''solarcooking.org'' * Horace-Bénédict de Saussure works available online **(1796–1808
''Voyages dans les Alpes, précédés d'un essai sur l'histoire naturelle des environs le Genève'', 4 vol.
–
Linda Hall Library The Linda Hall Library is a privately endowed American library of science, engineering and technology located in Kansas City, Missouri, on the grounds of a urban arboretum. It claims to be the "largest independently funded public library of sc ...
** (1796
"Agenda, Ou tableau général des observations et des recherches dont les résultats doivent servir de base à la théorie de la terre."
''Journal des mines'', no. 20. Paris, an. 4 (1796); p. 1–70. – Linda Hall Library {{DEFAULTSORT:Saussure, Horace Benedict de 1740 births 1799 deaths 18th-century botanists from the Republic of Geneva Mountain climbers from the Republic of Geneva 18th-century physicists from the Republic of Geneva 18th-century Protestants Botanists with author abbreviations Fellows of the Royal Society Members of the Royal Swedish Academy of Sciences 18th-century naturalists Scientific instrument makers Horace Benedict Meteorologists from the Republic of Geneva