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Honoré de Balzac ( , more commonly ; ; born Honoré Balzac; 20 May 1799 – 18 August 1850) was a French novelist and playwright. The novel sequence ''
La Comédie humaine (; English: ''The Human Comedy'') is Honoré de Balzac's 1829–48 multi-volume collection of interlinked novels and stories depicting French society in the period of the Restoration (1815–30) and the July Monarchy (1830–48). ''La Com� ...
'', which presents a panorama of post-Napoleonic French life, is generally viewed as his ''
magnum opus A masterpiece, , or ; ; ) is a creation that has been given much critical praise, especially one that is considered the greatest work of a person's career or a work of outstanding creativity, skill, profundity, or workmanship. Historically, ...
''. Owing to his keen observation of detail and unfiltered representation of society, Balzac is regarded as one of the founders of realism in
European literature Western literature, also known as European literature, is the literature written in the context of Western culture in the languages of Europe, and is shaped by the periods in which they were conceived, with each period containing prominent weste ...
. He is renowned for his multi-faceted characters; even his lesser characters are complex, morally ambiguous and fully human. Inanimate objects are imbued with character as well; the city of Paris, a backdrop for much of his writing, takes on many human qualities. His writing influenced many famous writers, including the novelists
Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...
,
Charles Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer and Social criticism, social critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by ...
,
Marcel Proust Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust ( ; ; 10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, literary critic, and essayist who wrote the novel (in French – translated in English as ''Remembrance of Things Past'' and more r ...
,
Gustave Flaubert Gustave Flaubert ( , ; ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist. He has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country and abroad. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in Flaubert, realis ...
, and
Henry James Henry James ( – ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a key transitional figure between literary realism and literary modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest novelists in the English language. He was the ...
, and filmmakers
François Truffaut François Roland Truffaut ( , ; ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French filmmaker, actor, and critic. He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave. He came under the tutelage of film critic Andre Bazin as a ...
and
Jacques Rivette Jacques Rivette (; 1 March 1928 – 29 January 2016) was a French film director and film critic most commonly associated with the French New Wave and the film magazine '' Cahiers du Cinéma''. He made twenty-nine films, including '' L'Amour fo ...
. Many of Balzac's works have been made into films and continue to inspire other writers. James called him "really the father of us all." An enthusiastic reader and independent thinker as a child, Balzac had trouble adapting to the teaching style of his grammar school. His willful nature caused trouble throughout his life and frustrated his ambitions to succeed in the world of business. When he finished school, Balzac was apprenticed in a
law office A law firm is a business entity formed by one or more lawyers to engage in the practice of law. The primary service rendered by a law firm is to advise consumer, clients (individuals or corporations) about their legal rights and Obligation, respon ...
, but he turned his back on the study of law after wearying of its inhumanity and banal routine. Before and during his career as a writer, he attempted to be a publisher, printer, businessman, critic, and politician; he failed in all of these efforts. ''
La Comédie humaine (; English: ''The Human Comedy'') is Honoré de Balzac's 1829–48 multi-volume collection of interlinked novels and stories depicting French society in the period of the Restoration (1815–30) and the July Monarchy (1830–48). ''La Com� ...
'' reflects his real-life difficulties, and includes scenes from his own experience. Balzac suffered from health problems throughout his life, possibly owing to his intense writing schedule. His relationship with his family was often strained by financial and personal drama, and he lost more than one friend over critical reviews. In 1850, Balzac married
Ewelina Hańska Eveline Hańska (; 6 January  – 11 April 1882) was a Polish people, Polish nobility, noblewoman best known for her marriage to French novelist Honoré de Balzac. Born at the Wierzchownia estate in VolhyniaJuanita Helm Floyd ''Women in th ...
(), a Polish aristocrat and his longtime love. He died in Paris six months later.


Biography


Family

Honoré de Balzac was born into a family that aspired to achieve respectability through its industry and efforts. His father, born Bernard-François Balssa, was one of eleven children from an artisan family in Tarn, a département in the south-west of France. In 1760 he set off for Paris with only a ''Louis'' coin in his pocket, intent on improving his social standing; by 1776 he had become Secretary to the King's Council and a
Freemason Freemasonry (sometimes spelled Free-Masonry) consists of fraternal groups that trace their origins to the medieval guilds of stonemasons. Freemasonry is the oldest secular fraternity in the world and among the oldest still-existing organizati ...
. (He had also changed his name to the more noble sounding Balzac, his son later adding—without official recognition—the
nobiliary particle A nobiliary particle is a type of onomastic particle used in a surname or family name in many Western cultures to signal the nobility of a family. The particle used varies depending on the country, language and period of time. In some languages, it ...
''de''). After the
Reign of Terror The Reign of Terror (French: ''La Terreur'', literally "The Terror") was a period of the French Revolution when, following the creation of the French First Republic, First Republic, a series of massacres and Capital punishment in France, nu ...
(1793–94), François Balzac was despatched to
Tours Tours ( ; ) is the largest city in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire. The Communes of France, commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabita ...
to coordinate supplies for the
Army An army, ground force or land force is an armed force that fights primarily on land. In the broadest sense, it is the land-based military branch, service branch or armed service of a nation or country. It may also include aviation assets by ...
. Balzac's mother, born Anne-Charlotte-Laure Sallambier, came from a family of
haberdasher __NOTOC__ In British English, a haberdasher is a business or person who sells small articles for sewing, dressmaking and knitting, such as buttons, ribbons, and zippers; in the United States, the term refers instead to a men's clothing st ...
s in Paris. Her family's wealth was a considerable factor in the match: she was eighteen at the time of the wedding and François Balzac fifty. As the author and literary critic Sir Victor Pritchett explained, "She was certainly drily aware that she had been given to an old husband as a reward for his professional services to a friend of her family and that the capital was on her side. She was not in love with her husband". Honoré (named after Saint-Honoré of Amiens, who is commemorated on 16 May, four days before Balzac's birthday) was actually the second child born to the Balzacs: exactly one year earlier Louis-Daniel had been born, but he lived for only a month. Honoré's sisters, Laure and Laurence, were born in 1800 and 1802 and his younger brother, Henry-François, in 1807.


Early life

As an infant Balzac was sent to a
wet nurse A wet nurse is a woman who breastfeeding, breastfeeds and cares for another's child. Wet nurses are employed if the mother dies, if she is unable to nurse the child herself sufficiently or chooses not to do so. Wet-nursed children may be known a ...
; the following year he was joined by his sister Laure and they spent four years away from home. (Although Genevan philosopher
Jean-Jacques Rousseau Jean-Jacques Rousseau (, ; ; 28 June 1712 – 2 July 1778) was a Republic of Geneva, Genevan philosopher (''philosophes, philosophe''), writer, and composer. His political philosophy influenced the progress of the Age of Enlightenment through ...
's influential book '' Émile'' persuaded many mothers of the time to nurse their own children, sending babies to wet nurses was still common among the middle and upper classes.) When the Balzac children returned home, they were kept at a frosty distance from their parents, which affected the author-to-be significantly. His 1835 novel '' Le Lys dans la vallée'' features a cruel governess named Miss Caroline, modelled after his own caregiver. At age ten Balzac was sent to the Oratorian
grammar school A grammar school is one of several different types of school in the history of education in the United Kingdom and other English-speaking countries, originally a Latin school, school teaching Latin, but more recently an academically oriented Se ...
in Vendôme, where he studied for seven years. His father, seeking to instill the same hardscrabble work ethic that had gained him the esteem of society, intentionally gave little spending money to the boy. This made him the object of ridicule among his much wealthier schoolmates. Balzac had difficulty adapting to the rote style of learning at the school. As a result, he was frequently sent to the "alcove", a punishment cell reserved for disobedient students. (The janitor at the school, when asked later if he remembered Honoré, replied: "Remember M. Balzac? I should think I do! I had the honour of escorting him to the dungeon more than a hundred times!") Still, his time alone gave the boy ample freedom to read every book which came his way. Balzac worked these scenes from his boyhood—as he did many aspects of his life and the lives of those around him—into ''
La Comédie humaine (; English: ''The Human Comedy'') is Honoré de Balzac's 1829–48 multi-volume collection of interlinked novels and stories depicting French society in the period of the Restoration (1815–30) and the July Monarchy (1830–48). ''La Com� ...
''. His time at Vendôme is reflected in '' Louis Lambert'', his 1832 novel about a young boy studying at an Oratorian grammar school at Vendôme. The narrator says : "He devoured books of every kind, feeding indiscriminately on religious works, history and literature, philosophy and physics. He had told me that he found indescribable delight in reading dictionaries for lack of other books." Balzac often fell ill, finally causing the headmaster to contact his family with news of a "sort of a coma". When he returned home, his grandmother said: "" ("Look how the academy returns the pretty ones we send them!") Balzac himself attributed his condition to "intellectual congestion", but his extended confinement in the "alcove" was surely a factor. (Meanwhile, his father had been writing a treatise on "the means of preventing thefts and murders, and of restoring the men who commit them to a useful role in society", in which he heaped disdain on prison as a form of crime prevention.) In 1814 the Balzac family moved to Paris, and Honoré was sent to private tutors and schools for the next two and a half years. This was an unhappy time in his life, during which he attempted suicide on a bridge over the river
Loire The Loire ( , , ; ; ; ; ) is the longest river in France and the 171st longest in the world. With a length of , it drains , more than a fifth of France's land, while its average discharge is only half that of the Rhône. It rises in the so ...
. In 1816 Balzac entered the Sorbonne, where he studied under three famous professors:
François Guizot François Pierre Guillaume Guizot (; 4 October 1787 – 12 September 1874) was a French historian, orator and Politician, statesman. Guizot was a dominant figure in French politics between the July Revolution, Revolution of 1830 and the Revoluti ...
, who later became
Prime Minister A prime minister or chief of cabinet is the head of the cabinet and the leader of the ministers in the executive branch of government, often in a parliamentary or semi-presidential system. A prime minister is not the head of state, but r ...
, was Professor of Modern History; Abel-François Villemain, a recent arrival from the ''Collège Charlemagne'', lectured on French and classical literature; and, most influential of all,
Victor Cousin Victor Cousin (; ; 28 November 179214 January 1867) was a French philosopher. He was the founder of " eclecticism", a briefly influential school of French philosophy that combined elements of German idealism and Scottish Common Sense Realism. ...
's courses on philosophy encouraged his students to think independently. Once his studies were completed, Balzac was persuaded by his father to follow him into the Law; after a stint in the office of the Jean-Baptiste Guillonnet-Merville for three years he trained and worked at the office of the notary Édouard-Victor Passez, a family friend. During this time Balzac began to understand the vagaries of human nature. In his 1840 novel ''Le Notaire'', he wrote that a young person in the legal profession sees "the oily wheels of every fortune, the hideous wrangling of heirs over corpses not yet cold, the human heart grappling with the Penal Code". In 1819 Passez offered to make Balzac his successor, but his apprentice had had enough of the Law. He despaired of being "a clerk, a machine, a riding-school hack, eating and drinking and sleeping at fixed hours. I should be like everyone else. And that's what they call living, that life at the grindstone, doing the same thing over and over again.... I am hungry and nothing is offered to appease my appetite". He announced his intention to become a writer. The loss of this opportunity caused serious discord in the Balzac household, although Honoré was not turned away entirely. Instead, in April 1819 he was allowed to live in the French capital—as English critic
George Saintsbury George Edward Bateman Saintsbury, FBA (23 October 1845 – 28 January 1933), was an English critic, literary historian, editor, teacher, and wine connoisseur. He is regarded as a highly influential critic of the late 19th and early 20th cent ...
describes it—"in a garret furnished in the most Spartan fashion, with a starvation allowance and an old woman to look after him", while the rest of the family moved to a house twenty miles (32 km) outside Paris.


First literary efforts

Balzac's first project was a
libretto A libretto (From the Italian word , ) is the text used in, or intended for, an extended musical work such as an opera, operetta, masque, oratorio, cantata or Musical theatre, musical. The term ''libretto'' is also sometimes used to refer to th ...
for a
comic opera Comic opera, sometimes known as light opera, is a sung dramatic work of a light or comic nature, usually with a happy ending and often including spoken dialogue. Forms of comic opera first developed in late 17th-century Italy. By the 1730s, a ne ...
called ''Le Corsaire'', based on
Lord Byron George Gordon Byron, 6th Baron Byron (22 January 1788 – 19 April 1824) was an English poet. He is one of the major figures of the Romantic movement, and is regarded as being among the greatest poets of the United Kingdom. Among his best-kno ...
's '' The Corsair''. Realizing he would have trouble finding a composer, however, he turned to other pursuits. In 1820 Balzac completed the five-act verse tragedy '' Cromwell''. Although it pales by comparison with his later works, some critics consider it a good-quality text. When he finished, Balzac went to Villeparisis and read the entire work to his family; they were unimpressed. He followed this effort by starting (but never finishing) three novels: ''Sténie'', ''Falthurne'', and ''Corsino''. In 1821 Balzac met the enterprising Auguste Le Poitevin, who convinced the author to write short stories, which Le Poitevin would then sell to publishers. Balzac quickly turned to longer works, and by 1826 he had written nine novels, all published under pseudonyms and often produced in collaboration with other writers. For example, the scandalous novel ''Vicaire des Ardennes'' (1822)—banned for its depiction of nearly-incestuous relations and, more egregiously, of a married priest—attributed to a "Horace de Saint-Aubin". These books were
potboiler A potboiler or pot-boiler is a novel, Play (theatre), play, opera, film, or other creative work of dubious literary or artistic merit whose main purpose is to pay for the creator's daily expenses—thus the imagery of "boil the pot", which means " ...
novels, designed to sell quickly and titillate audiences. In Saintsbury's view, "they are curiously, interestingly, almost enthrallingly bad". Saintsbury indicates that
Robert Louis Stevenson Robert Louis Stevenson (born Robert Lewis Balfour Stevenson; 13 November 1850 – 3 December 1894) was a Scottish novelist, essayist, poet and travel writer. He is best known for works such as ''Treasure Island'', ''Strange Case of Dr Jekyll ...
tried to dissuade him from reading these early works of Balzac. American critic Samuel Rogers, however, notes that "without the training they gave Balzac, as he groped his way to his mature conception of the novel, and without the habit he formed as a young man of writing under pressure, one can hardly imagine his producing ''La Comédie humaine''". Biographer Graham Robb suggests that as he discovered the Novel, Balzac discovered himself. During this time Balzac wrote two pamphlets in support of
primogeniture Primogeniture () is the right, by law or custom, of the firstborn Legitimacy (family law), legitimate child to inheritance, inherit all or most of their parent's estate (law), estate in preference to shared inheritance among all or some childre ...
and the
Society of Jesus The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rome. It was founded in 1540 ...
. The latter, regarding the
Jesuit The Society of Jesus (; abbreviation: S.J. or SJ), also known as the Jesuit Order or the Jesuits ( ; ), is a religious order (Catholic), religious order of clerics regular of pontifical right for men in the Catholic Church headquartered in Rom ...
s, illustrated his lifelong admiration for the
Catholic Church The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the List of Christian denominations by number of members, largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics Catholic Church by country, worldwid ...
. In the preface to ''La Comédie humaine'' he wrote: "Christianity, above all, Catholicism, being ... a complete system for the repression of the depraved tendencies of man, is the most powerful element of social order".


""

In the late 1820s Balzac dabbled in several business ventures, a penchant his sister blamed on the temptation of an unknown neighbour. His first enterprise was in publishing which turned out cheap one-volume editions of French classics including the works of
Molière Jean-Baptiste Poquelin (; 15 January 1622 (baptised) – 17 February 1673), known by his stage name Molière (, ; ), was a French playwright, actor, and poet, widely regarded as one of the great writers in the French language and world liter ...
. This business failed miserably, with many of the books "sold as waste paper". Balzac had better luck publishing the Memoirs of the Duchess of Abrantès, with whom he also had a love affair. Balzac borrowed money from his family and friends and tried to build a printing business, then a
type foundry A type foundry is a company that designs or distributes typefaces. Before digital typography, type foundries manufactured and sold metal and wood typefaces for hand typesetting, and matrices for line-casting machines like the Linotype and ...
. His inexperience and lack of capital caused his ruin in these trades. He gave the businesses to a friend (who made them successful) but carried the debts for many years. As of April 1828 Balzac owed 50,000 francs to his mother. Balzac never lost his penchant for . It resurfaced painfully later when—as a renowned and busy author—he traveled to
Sardinia Sardinia ( ; ; ) is the Mediterranean islands#By area, second-largest island in the Mediterranean Sea, after Sicily, and one of the Regions of Italy, twenty regions of Italy. It is located west of the Italian Peninsula, north of Tunisia an ...
in the hopes of reprocessing the
slag The general term slag may be a by-product or co-product of smelting (pyrometallurgical) ores and recycled metals depending on the type of material being produced. Slag is mainly a mixture of metal oxides and silicon dioxide. Broadly, it can be c ...
from the Roman mines there. Near the end of his life Balzac was captivated by the idea of cutting of oak wood in Ukraine and transporting it for sale in France.


''La Comédie humaine'' and literary success

After writing several novels, in 1832 Balzac conceived the idea for an enormous series of books that would paint a panoramic portrait of "all aspects of society". The moment the idea came to him, Balzac raced to his sister's apartment and proclaimed: "I am about to become a genius!"Pritchett, 161 Although he originally called it ''Etudes des Mœurs'' (literally 'Studies of manners', or 'The Ways of the World') it eventually became known as ''La Comédie humaine'', and he included in it all the fiction that he had published in his lifetime under his own name. This was to be Balzac's life work and his greatest achievement. After the collapse of his businesses, Balzac traveled to
Brittany Brittany ( ) is a peninsula, historical country and cultural area in the north-west of modern France, covering the western part of what was known as Armorica in Roman Gaul. It became an Kingdom of Brittany, independent kingdom and then a Duch ...
and stayed with the De Pommereul family outside
Fougères Fougères (; ; Gallo language, Gallo: ''Foujerr'') is a Communes of France, commune and a Subprefectures in France, sub-prefecture of the Ille-et-Vilaine Departments of France, department, located in Brittany (administrative region), Brittany, no ...
. There he drew inspiration for '' Les Chouans'' (1829), a tale of love gone wrong amid the Chouan royalist forces. Although he was a supporter of the
Crown A crown is a traditional form of head adornment, or hat, worn by monarchs as a symbol of their power and dignity. A crown is often, by extension, a symbol of the monarch's government or items endorsed by it. The word itself is used, parti ...
, Balzac paints the revolutionaries in a sympathetic light—even though they are the center of the book's most brutal scenes. This was the first book Balzac released under his own name, and it gave him what one critic called "passage into the Promised Land". It established him as an author of note (even if its historical fiction-genre imitates that of
Sir Walter Scott Sir Walter Scott, 1st Baronet (15 August 1771 – 21 September 1832), was a Scottish novelist, poet and historian. Many of his works remain classics of European literature, European and Scottish literature, notably the novels ''Ivanhoe'' (18 ...
) and provided him with a name outside his past pseudonyms. Soon afterwards, around the time of his father's death, Balzac wrote '' El Verdugo''—about a 30-year-old man who kills his father (Balzac was 30 years old at the time). This was the first work signed "Honoré ''de'' Balzac". He followed his father in the surname Balzac but added the aristocratic-sounding nobiliary particle to help him fit into respected society, a choice based on skill rather than by right. "The aristocracy and authority of talent are more substantial than the aristocracy of names and material power", he wrote in 1830. The timing of the decision was also significant; as Robb explained: "The disappearance of the father coincides with the adoption of the nobiliary particle. A symbolic inheritance." Just as his father had worked his way up from poverty into respectable society, Balzac considered toil and effort his real mark of nobility. When the
July Revolution The French Revolution of 1830, also known as the July Revolution (), Second French Revolution, or ("Three Glorious ays), was a second French Revolution after French Revolution, the first of 1789–99. It led to the overthrow of King Cha ...
overthrew
Charles X Charles X may refer to: * Charles X of France (1757–1836) * Charles X Gustav (1622–1660), King of Sweden * Charles, Cardinal de Bourbon (1523–1590), recognized as Charles X of France but renounced the royal title See also * * King Charle ...
in 1830, Balzac declared himself a Legitimist, supporting King Charles' Royal House of Bourbon, but not without qualifications. He felt that the new
July Monarchy The July Monarchy (), officially the ''Kingdom of France'' (), was a liberalism, liberal constitutional monarchy in France under , starting on 9 August 1830, after the revolutionary victory of the July Revolution of 1830, and ending 26 Februar ...
(which claimed widespread popular support) was disorganized and unprincipled, in need of a mediator to keep the political peace between the King and insurgent forces. He called for "a young and vigorous man who belongs neither to the Directoire nor to the Empire, but who is 1830 incarnate...." He planned to be such a
candidate A candidate, or nominee, is a prospective recipient of an award or honor, or a person seeking or being considered for some kind of position. For example, one can be a candidate for membership in a group (sociology), group or election to an offic ...
, appealing especially to the higher classes in
Chinon Chinon () is a Communes of France, commune in the Indre-et-Loire Departments of France, department, Centre-Val de Loire, France. The traditional province around Chinon, Touraine, became a favorite resort of French kings and their nobles beginn ...
. But after a near-fatal accident in 1832 (he slipped and cracked his head on the street), Balzac decided not to stand for election. 1831 saw the success of ''
La Peau de chagrin ''La Peau de chagrin'' (, ''The Skin of Shagreen''), known in English as ''The Magic Skin'' and ''The Wild Ass's Skin'', is an 1831 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850). Set in early 19th-century Paris, it tel ...
'' (''The Wild Ass's Skin'' or ''The Magic Skin''), a fable-like tale about a despondent young man named Raphaël de Valentin who finds an animal skin which promises great power and wealth. He obtains these things, but loses the ability to manage them. In the end, his health fails and he is consumed by his own confusion. Balzac meant the story to bear witness to the treacherous turns of life, its "serpentine motion". In 1833 Balzac released '' Eugénie Grandet'', his first best-seller. The tale of a young lady who inherits her father's miserliness, it also became the most critically acclaimed book of his career. The writing is simple, yet the individuals (especially the bourgeois title character) are dynamic and complex. It is followed by '' La Duchesse de Langeais'', arguably the most sublime of his novels. '' Le Père Goriot'' (''Old Father Goriot'', 1835) was his next success, in which Balzac transposes the story of ''
King Lear ''The Tragedy of King Lear'', often shortened to ''King Lear'', is a Shakespearean tragedy, tragedy written by William Shakespeare. It is loosely based on the mythological Leir of Britain. King Lear, in preparation for his old age, divides his ...
'' to 1820s Paris in order to rage at a society bereft of all love save the love of money. The centrality of a father in this novel matches Balzac's own position—not only as mentor to his troubled young secretary, Jules Sandeau, but also the fact that he had fathered a child, Marie-Caroline Du Fresnay, with his otherwise-married lover, Maria Du Fresnay, who had been his source of inspiration for '' Eugénie Grandet''. In 1836 Balzac took the helm of the ''Chronique de Paris'', a weekly magazine of society and politics. He tried to enforce strict impartiality in its pages and a reasoned assessment of various ideologies.Robb, 272 As Rogers notes, "Balzac was interested in any social, political, or economic theory, whether from the right or the left." The magazine failed, but in July 1840 he founded another publication, the ''Revue Parisienne''. It produced three issues. These dismal business efforts—and his misadventures in Sardinia—provided an appropriate milieu in which to set the two-volume '' Illusions perdues'' (''Lost Illusions'', 1843). The novel concerns Lucien de Rubempré, a young poet trying to make a name for himself, who becomes trapped in the morass of society's darkest contradictions. Lucien's journalistic work is informed by Balzac's own failed ventures in the field. '' Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes'' (''The Harlot High and Low'', 1847) continues Lucien's story. He is trapped by the Abbé Herrera ( Vautrin) in a convoluted and disastrous plan to regain social status. The book undergoes a massive temporal rift; the first part (of four) covers a span of six years, while the final two sections focus on just three days. '' Le Cousin Pons'' (1847) and '' La Cousine Bette'' (1848) tell the story of ''Les Parents Pauvres'' (''The Poor Relations''). The conniving and wrangling over wills and inheritances reflect the expertise gained by the author as a young law clerk. Balzac's health was deteriorating by this point, making the completion of this pair of books a significant accomplishment. Many of his novels were initially serialized, like those of
Dickens Charles John Huffam Dickens (; 7 February 1812 – 9 June 1870) was an English novelist, journalist, short story writer and social critic. He created some of literature's best-known fictional characters, and is regarded by many as the great ...
. Their length was not predetermined. ''Illusions Perdues'' extends to a thousand pages after starting inauspiciously in a small-town print shop, whereas '' La Fille aux yeux d'or'' (''The Girl with the Golden Eyes'', 1835) opens with a broad panorama of Paris but becomes a closely plotted novella of only fifty pages. According to the literary critic Kornelije Kvas, "Balzac's use of the same characters (Rastignac, Vautrin) in different parts of ''The Human Comedy'' is a consequence of the realist striving for narrative economy".


Work habits

Balzac's work habits were legendary. He wrote from 1 A.M. to 8 A.M. every morning and sometimes even longer. Balzac could write very rapidly; some of his novels, written with a quill, were composed at a pace equal to thirty words per minute on a modern typewriter. His preferred method was to eat a light meal at five or six in the afternoon, then sleep until midnight. He then rose and wrote for many hours, fueled by innumerable cups of black coffee. He often worked for fifteen hours or more at a stretch; he claimed to have once worked for 48 hours with only three hours of rest in the middle. Balzac revised obsessively, covering printer's proofs with changes and additions to be reset. He sometimes repeated this process during the publication of a book, causing significant expense both for himself and the publisher. As a result, the finished product quite often was different from the original text. Although some of his books never reached completion, some—such as ''Les employés'' (''The Government Clerks'', 1841)—are nonetheless noted by critics. Although Balzac was "by turns a hermit and a vagrant", he managed to stay in tune with the social spheres which nourished his writing. He was friends with
Théophile Gautier Pierre Jules Théophile Gautier ( , ; 30 August 1811 – 23 October 1872) was a French poet, dramatist, novelist, journalist, and art and literary critic. While an ardent defender of Romanticism, Gautier's work is difficult to classify and rema ...
,
Hector Berlioz Louis-Hector Berlioz (11 December 1803 – 8 March 1869) was a French Romantic music, Romantic composer and conductor. His output includes orchestral works such as the ''Symphonie fantastique'' and ''Harold en Italie, Harold in Italy'' ...
,
George Sand Amantine Lucile Aurore Dupin de Francueil (; 1 July 1804 – 8 June 1876), best known by her pen name George Sand (), was a French novelist, memoirist and journalist. Being more renowned than either Victor Hugo or Honoré de Balz ...
, Frederic Chopin,
Gioachino Rossini Gioachino Antonio Rossini (29 February 1792 – 13 November 1868) was an Italian composer of the late Classical period (music), Classical and early Romantic music, Romantic eras. He gained fame for his 39 operas, although he also wrote man ...
and Pierre-Marie-Charles de Bernard du Grail de la Villette, and he was acquainted with
Victor Hugo Victor-Marie Hugo, vicomte Hugo (; 26 February 1802 – 22 May 1885) was a French Romanticism, Romantic author, poet, essayist, playwright, journalist, human rights activist and politician. His most famous works are the novels ''The Hunchbac ...
. Nevertheless, he did not spend as much time in ''salons'' and
clubs Club may refer to: Arts, entertainment, and media * Club (magazine), ''Club'' (magazine) * Club, a ''Yie Ar Kung-Fu'' character * Clubs (suit), a suit of playing cards * Club music * "Club", by Kelsea Ballerini from the album ''kelsea'' Brands a ...
of Paris like many of his characters. "In the first place he was too busy", explains Saintsbury, "in the second he would not have been at home there.... felt it was his business not to frequent society but to create it". However, he often spent long periods at the Château de Saché, near
Tours Tours ( ; ) is the largest city in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire. The Communes of France, commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabita ...
, the home of his friend Jean de Margonne, his mother's lover and father to her youngest child. Many of Balzac's tormented characters were conceived in the chateau's small second-floor bedroom. Today the chateau is a museum dedicated to the author's life.


Marriage, romantic relationships, and death

In 1833, as he revealed in a letter to his sister, Balzac entered into an illicit affair with fellow writer Maria Du Fresnay, who was then aged 24. Her marriage to a considerably older man (Charles du Fresnay, Mayor of
Sartrouville Sartrouville () is a communes of France, commune in the Yvelines departments of France, department, Île-de-France, north central France. it is located in the north-western suburbs of Paris, from the Kilometre Zero, center of Paris. Name In the ...
) had been a failure from the outset. In this letter, Balzac also reveals that the young woman had just come to tell him she was pregnant with his child. In 1834, 8 months after the event, Maria Du Fresnay's daughter by Balzac, Marie-Caroline Du Fresnay, was born. This revelation from French journalist in 1955 confirmed what was already suspected by several historians: the dedicatee of the novel ''Eugénie Grandet'', a certain "Maria", turns out to be Maria Du Fresnay herself. Balzac had also long been suspected of being attracted to males as well. When the official records of homosexuals once maintained by the Paris police were finally released, his name was found listed. In February 1832 Balzac received an intriguing letter from
Odessa ODESSA is an American codename (from the German language, German: ''Organisation der ehemaligen SS-Angehörigen'', meaning: Organization of Former SS Members) coined in 1946 to cover Ratlines (World War II aftermath), Nazi underground escape-pl ...
—with no return address and signed simply "''L'Étrangère''" ("The Foreigner")—expressing sadness at the cynicism and atheism in ''La Peau de Chagrin'' and its negative portrayal of women. His response was to place a classified advertisement in the ''Gazette de France'', hoping that his anonymous critic would see it. Thus began a fifteen-year correspondence between Balzac and "the object of issweetest dreams":
Ewelina Hańska Eveline Hańska (; 6 January  – 11 April 1882) was a Polish people, Polish nobility, noblewoman best known for her marriage to French novelist Honoré de Balzac. Born at the Wierzchownia estate in VolhyniaJuanita Helm Floyd ''Women in th ...
. Ewelina (''née'' Rzewuska) was married to a
nobleman Nobility is a social class found in many societies that have an aristocracy. It is normally appointed by and ranked immediately below royalty. Nobility has often been an estate of the realm with many exclusive functions and characteristics. T ...
twenty years her senior,
Marshal Marshal is a term used in several official titles in various branches of society. As marshals became trusted members of the courts of Middle Ages, Medieval Europe, the title grew in reputation. During the last few centuries, it has been used fo ...
Wacław Hański, a wealthy Polish landowner living near
Kyiv Kyiv, also Kiev, is the capital and most populous List of cities in Ukraine, city of Ukraine. Located in the north-central part of the country, it straddles both sides of the Dnieper, Dnieper River. As of 1 January 2022, its population was 2, ...
. It had been a
marriage of convenience A marriage of convenience is a marriage contracted for reasons other than that of love and commitment. Instead, such a marriage is entered into for personal gain, or some other sort of strategic purpose, such as a political marriage. Cases whe ...
to preserve her
family Family (from ) is a Social group, group of people related either by consanguinity (by recognized birth) or Affinity (law), affinity (by marriage or other relationship). It forms the basis for social order. Ideally, families offer predictabili ...
's fortune. In Balzac Countess Ewelina found a kindred spirit for her emotional and social desires, with the added benefit of feeling a connection to the glamorous capital of France. Their correspondence reveals an intriguing balance of passion, propriety and patience; Robb says it is "like an experimental novel in which the female protagonist is always trying to pull in extraneous realities but which the hero is determined to keep on course, whatever tricks he has to use". Marshal Hański died in 1841, and his widow and her admirer finally had the chance to pursue their affections. A rival of the Hungarian composer
Franz Liszt Franz Liszt (22 October 1811 – 31 July 1886) was a Hungarian composer, virtuoso pianist, conductor and teacher of the Romantic music, Romantic period. With a diverse List of compositions by Franz Liszt, body of work spanning more than six ...
, Balzac visited Countess Hańska in
Saint Petersburg Saint Petersburg, formerly known as Petrograd and later Leningrad, is the List of cities and towns in Russia by population, second-largest city in Russia after Moscow. It is situated on the Neva, River Neva, at the head of the Gulf of Finland ...
in 1843 and won her heart. After a series of financial setbacks, health problems and objections from
Tsar Nicholas I Nicholas I, group=pron (Russian language, Russian: Николай I Павлович; – ) was Emperor of Russia, List of rulers of Partitioned Poland#Kings of the Kingdom of Poland, King of Congress Poland, and Grand Duke of Finland from 18 ...
, the couple finally received permission to wed. On 14 March 1850, with Balzac's health in serious decline, they travelled by carriage from her family seat at
Park A park is an area of natural, semi-natural or planted space set aside for human enjoyment and recreation or for the protection of wildlife or natural habitats. Urban parks are urban green space, green spaces set aside for recreation inside t ...
in
Volhynia Volhynia or Volynia ( ; see #Names and etymology, below) is a historic region in Central and Eastern Europe, between southeastern Poland, southwestern Belarus, and northwestern Ukraine. The borders of the region are not clearly defined, but in ...
to St. Barbara's Catholic Church in
Berdychiv Berdychiv (, ) is a historic city in Zhytomyr Oblast, northern Ukraine. It serves as the administrative center of Berdychiv Raion within the oblast. It is south of the administrative center of the oblast, Zhytomyr. Its population is approximat ...
(Russia's former banking city in present-day Ukraine), where they were married by Abbot Ożarowski. The ten-hour journey to and from the ceremony took a toll on both husband and wife: her feet were too swollen to walk, and he endured severe heart trouble. Although he married late in life, Balzac had already written two treatises on marriage: ''Physiologie du Mariage'' and ''Scènes de la Vie Conjugale''. These works lacked firsthand knowledge; Saintsbury points out that "cœlebs cannot talk of arriagewith much authority". In late April the newly-weds set off for Paris. His health deteriorated on the way, and Ewelina wrote to her daughter about Balzac being "in a state of extreme weakness" and "sweating profusely". They arrived in the French capital on 20 May, his fifty-first birthday. Five months after his wedding, on Sunday, 18 August 1850, Balzac died of
gangrene Gangrene is a type of tissue death caused by a lack of blood supply. Symptoms may include a change in skin color to red or black, numbness, swelling, pain, skin breakdown, and coolness. The feet and hands are most commonly affected. If the ga ...
associated with
congestive heart failure Heart failure (HF), also known as congestive heart failure (CHF), is a syndrome caused by an impairment in the heart's ability to fill with and pump blood. Although symptoms vary based on which side of the heart is affected, HF typically pr ...
, in the presence of his mother—his wife, Eve de Balzac (formerly Countess Hańska) had gone to bed. He had been visited that day by Victor Hugo, who later served as a pallbearer and the eulogist at Balzac's funeral. Some modern researchers have attributed a factor in his death to excessive coffee consumption or a caffeine overdose (Balzac reportedly drank over 50 cups a day) but this has yet to be proved. Balzac is buried at
Père Lachaise Cemetery Père Lachaise Cemetery (, , formerly , ) is the largest cemetery in Paris, France, at . With more than 3.5 million visitors annually, it is the most visited necropolis in the world. Buried at Père Lachaise are many famous figures in the ...
in Paris. At his memorial service, Victor Hugo pronounced "Today we have people in black because of the death of the man of talent; a nation in mourning for a man of genius". The funeral was attended by "almost every writer in Paris", including Frédérick Lemaître,
Gustave Courbet Jean Désiré Gustave Courbet ( ; ; ; 10 June 1819 – 31 December 1877) was a French painter who led the Realism movement in 19th-century French painting. Committed to painting only what he could see, he rejected academic convention and the ...
, Dumas ''père'' and Dumas ''fils'', as well as representatives of the
Légion d'honneur The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...
and other dignitaries. Later, a statue (called the '' Monument to Balzac'') was created by the celebrated French sculptor
Auguste Rodin François Auguste René Rodin (; ; 12 November 184017 November 1917) was a French sculptor generally considered the founder of modern sculpture. He was schooled traditionally and took a craftsman-like approach to his work. Rodin possessed a u ...
. Cast in bronze, the Balzac Monument has stood since 1939 nearby the intersection of Boulevard Raspail and Boulevard Montparnasse at Place Pablo-Picasso. Rodin featured Balzac in several of his smaller sculptures as well.


Writing style

The ''Comédie humaine'' remained unfinished at the time of his death—Balzac had plans to include numerous other books, most of which he never started. He frequently flitted between works in progress. "Finished articles" were frequently revised between editions. This piecemeal style is reflective of the author's own life, a possible attempt to stabilize it through fiction. "The vanishing man", wrote Sir Victor Pritchett, "who must be pursued from the rue Cassini to ... 
Versailles The Palace of Versailles ( ; ) is a former royal residence commissioned by King Louis XIV located in Versailles, Yvelines, Versailles, about west of Paris, in the Yvelines, Yvelines Department of Île-de-France, Île-de-France region in Franc ...
, Ville d'Avray, Italy, and
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
can construct a settled dwelling only in his work".


Realism

Balzac's extensive use of detail, especially the detail of objects, to illustrate the lives of his characters made him an early pioneer of literary realism. Whilst he admired and drew inspiration from the Romantic style of Scottish novelist Walter Scott, Balzac sought to depict human existence through the use of particulars. In the preface to the first edition of ''Scènes de la Vie privée'', he wrote: "the author firmly believes that details alone will henceforth determine the merit of works". Plentiful descriptions of décor, clothing, and possessions help breathe life into the characters. For example, Balzac's friend Henri de Latouche had a good knowledge of hanging wallpaper. Balzac transferred this to his descriptions of the Pension Vauquer in ''Le Père Goriot'', making the wallpaper speak of the identities of those living inside. Some critics consider Balzac's writing exemplary of naturalism—a more pessimistic and analytical form of realism, which seeks to explain human behavior as intrinsically linked with the environment. French novelist
Émile Zola Émile Édouard Charles Antoine Zola (, ; ; 2 April 184029 September 1902) was a French novelist, journalist, playwright, the best-known practitioner of the literary school of Naturalism (literature), naturalism, and an important contributor to ...
declared Balzac the father of the naturalist novel. Zola indicated that whilst the
Romantics Romanticism (also known as the Romantic movement or Romantic era) was an artistic and intellectual movement that originated in Europe towards the end of the 18th century. The purpose of the movement was to advocate for the importance of subjec ...
saw the world through a colored lens, the naturalist sees through a clear glass—precisely the sort of effect Balzac attempted to achieve in his works.


Characters

Balzac sought to present his characters as real people, neither fully good nor fully evil, but completely human. "To arrive at the truth", he wrote in the preface to '' Le Lys dans la vallée'', "writers use whatever literary device seems capable of giving the greatest intensity of life to their characters". "Balzac's characters", Robb notes, "were as real to him as if he were observing them in the outside world". This reality was noted by playwright
Oscar Wilde Oscar Fingal O'Fflahertie Wills Wilde (16 October 185430 November 1900) was an Irish author, poet, and playwright. After writing in different literary styles throughout the 1880s, he became one of the most popular and influential playwright ...
, who said: "One of the greatest tragedies of my life is the death of 'Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes'' protagonistLucien de Rubempré.... It haunts me in my moments of pleasure. I remember it when I laugh". At the same time, the characters depict a particular range of social types: the noble soldier, the scoundrel, the proud workman, the fearless spy, the alluring mistress. That Balzac was able to balance the strength of the individual against the representation of the type is evidence of the author's skill. One critic explained that "there is a center and a circumference to Balzac's world". Balzac's use of repeat characters, moving in and out of the ''Comédie'' books, strengthens the realist representation. "When the characters reappear", notes Rogers, "they do not step out of nowhere; they emerge from the privacy of their own lives which, for an interval, we have not been allowed to see". He also used a realist technique which French novelist
Marcel Proust Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust ( ; ; 10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, literary critic, and essayist who wrote the novel (in French – translated in English as ''Remembrance of Things Past'' and more r ...
later termed "retrospective illumination", whereby a character's past is revealed long after she or he first appears. A nearly infinite reserve of energy propels the characters in Balzac's novels. Struggling against the currents of human nature and society, they may lose more often than they win—but only rarely do they give up. This universal trait is a reflection of Balzac's own social wrangling, that of his family, and an interest in the Austrian mystic and physician
Franz Mesmer Franz Anton Mesmer ( ; ; 23 May 1734 – 5 March 1815) was a German physician with an interest in astronomy. He theorized the existence of a process of natural Energy (esotericism), energy transference occurring between all animate and inanimat ...
, who pioneered the study of
animal magnetism Animal magnetism, also known as mesmerism, is a theory invented by German doctor Franz Mesmer in the 18th century. It posits the existence of an invisible natural force (''Lebensmagnetismus'') possessed by all living things, including humans ...
. Balzac spoke often of a "nervous and fluid force" between individuals, and Raphaël de Valentin's decline in ''La Peau de Chagrin'' exemplifies the danger of withdrawing from other people's company.


Place

Representations of the city, countryside, and building interiors are essential to Balzac's realism, often serving to paint a naturalistic backdrop before which the characters' lives follow a particular course; this gave him a reputation as an early naturalist. Intricate details about locations sometimes stretch for fifteen or twenty pages. As he did with the people around him, Balzac studied these places in depth, traveling to remote locations and comparing notes that he had made on previous visits. The influence of Paris permeates ''La Comédie'': nature defers to the artificial
metropolis A metropolis () is a large city or conurbation which is a significant economic, political, and cultural area for a country or region, and an important hub for regional or international connections, commerce, and communications. A big city b ...
, in contrast to descriptions of the weather and wildlife in the countryside. "If in Paris", Rogers says, "we are in a man-made region where even the seasons are forgotten, these provincial towns are nearly always pictured in their natural setting". Balzac said, "the streets of Paris possess human qualities and we cannot shake off the impressions they make upon our minds." His labyrinthine city provided a literary model used later by English novelist Charles Dickens and Russian author
Fyodor Dostoevsky Fyodor Mikhailovich Dostoevsky. () was a Russian novelist, short story writer, essayist and journalist. He is regarded as one of the greatest novelists in both Russian and world literature, and many of his works are considered highly influent ...
. The centrality of Paris in ''La Comédie humaine'' is key to Balzac's legacy as a realist. "Realism is nothing if not urban", notes critic Peter Brooks; the scene of a young man coming into the city to find his fortune is ubiquitous in the realist novel, and appears repeatedly in Balzac's works, such as '' Illusions Perdues''. Balzac visited the Château de Saché in Touraine which was owned by his friend Jean de Margonne (who was also his mother's lover), between 1830 and 1837, and wrote many of his novels in the series ''La Comédie humaine'' there. It is now a museum dedicated to Balzac where one can see his writing desk and quill pen and chair.


Perspective

Balzac's literary mood evolved over time from one of despondency and chagrin to that of solidarity and courage—but not optimism. ''La Peau de Chagrin'', among his earliest novels, is a pessimistic tale of confusion and destruction. But the cynicism declined as his '' oeuvre'' developed, and the characters of ''Illusions Perdues'' reveal sympathy for those who are pushed to one side by society. As part of the 19th-century evolution of the novel as a "democratic literary form", Balzac wrote that "" ("books are written for everybody"). Balzac concerned himself overwhelmingly with the darker essence of human nature and the corrupting influence of middle and high societies. His mission was to observe humankind in its most representative state, frequently wandering through the streets ''incognito'' among the masses of Parisian society to undertake his research.Robb, 70 He used incidents from his life and the people around him, in works like ''Eugénie Grandet'' and ''Louis Lambert''.


Politics

Balzac was a legitimist; in many ways, his views are the antithesis of Victor Hugo's democratic republicanism. He wrote, in his essay ''Society and the Individual'': Balzac was influenced by the counter-revolutionary philosopher and statesman Louis de Bonald, and once remarked that " en it beheaded
Louis XVI Louis XVI (Louis-Auguste; ; 23 August 1754 – 21 January 1793) was the last king of France before the fall of the monarchy during the French Revolution. The son of Louis, Dauphin of France (1729–1765), Louis, Dauphin of France (son and heir- ...
, the
Revolution In political science, a revolution (, 'a turn around') is a rapid, fundamental transformation of a society's class, state, ethnic or religious structures. According to sociologist Jack Goldstone, all revolutions contain "a common set of elements ...
beheaded in his person all fathers of families." Nevertheless, his keen insight regarding working-class conditions earned him the esteem of many socialists, including Marxists.
Engels Friedrich Engels ( ;"Engels"
''
Das Kapital ''Capital: A Critique of Political Economy'' (), also known as ''Capital'' or (), is the most significant work by Karl Marx and the cornerstone of Marxian economics, published in three volumes in 1867, 1885, and 1894. The culmination of his ...
'' also makes some references to the works of Balzac, and
Trotsky Lev Davidovich Bronstein ( – 21 August 1940), better known as Leon Trotsky,; ; also transliterated ''Lyev'', ''Trotski'', ''Trockij'' and ''Trotzky'' was a Russian revolutionary, Soviet politician, and political theorist. He was a key figure ...
famously read Balzac in the middle of meetings of the Central Committee, much to the consternation of his colleagues and comrades.


Legacy

Balzac influenced writers of his time and beyond. He has been compared to Charles Dickens and is considered one of Dickens' significant influences. Literary critic W. H. Helm calls one "the French Dickens" and the other "the English Balzac", while another critic, Richard Lehan, states that "Balzac was the bridge between the comic realism of Dickens and the naturalism of Zola".
Gustave Flaubert Gustave Flaubert ( , ; ; 12 December 1821 – 8 May 1880) was a French novelist. He has been considered the leading exponent of literary realism in his country and abroad. According to the literary theorist Kornelije Kvas, "in Flaubert, realis ...
was also substantially influenced by Balzac. Praising his portrayal of society while attacking his prose style, Flaubert once wrote: "What a man he would have been had he known how to write!" While he disdained the label of "realist", Flaubert clearly took heed of Balzac's close attention to detail and unvarnished depictions of bourgeois life. This influence shows in Flaubert's work ''L'éducation sentimentale'' which owes a debt to Balzac's ''Illusions Perdues''. "What Balzac started", observes Lehan, "Flaubert helped finish".Lehan, 48
Marcel Proust Valentin Louis Georges Eugène Marcel Proust ( ; ; 10 July 1871 – 18 November 1922) was a French novelist, literary critic, and essayist who wrote the novel (in French – translated in English as ''Remembrance of Things Past'' and more r ...
similarly learned from the Realist example; he adored Balzac and studied his works carefully, although he criticised what he perceived as Balzac's "vulgarity". Balzac's story ''Une Heure de ma Vie'' (''An Hour of my Life'', 1822), in which minute details are followed by deep personal reflections, is a clear forebear of the style which Proust used in '' À la recherche du temps perdu''. However, Proust wrote later in life that the contemporary fashion of ranking Balzac higher than Tolstoy was "madness". Perhaps the author most affected by Balzac was American expatriate novelist
Henry James Henry James ( – ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a key transitional figure between literary realism and literary modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest novelists in the English language. He was the ...
. In 1878 James wrote with sadness about the lack of contemporary attention paid to Balzac, and lavished praise on him in four essays (in 1875, 1877, 1902, and 1913). In 1878 James wrote: "Large as Balzac is, he is all of one piece and he hangs perfectly together". He wrote with admiration of Balzac's attempt to portray in writing "a beast with a hundred claws". In his own novels James explored more of the psychological motives of the characters and less of the historical sweep exhibited by Balzac—a conscious style preference; he stated: "the artist of the ''Comédie humaine'' is half smothered by the historian". Still, both authors used the form of the realist novel to probe the machinations of society and the myriad motives of human behavior.
William Saroyan William Saroyan (; August 31, 1908 – May 18, 1981) was an Armenian-American novelist, playwright, and short story writer. He was awarded the Pulitzer Prize for Drama in 1940, and in 1943 won the Academy Award for Best Story for the film ''The ...
wrote a short story about Balzac in his 1971 book, ''
Letters from 74 rue Taitbout ''Letters from 74 Rue Taitbout or Don't Go But If You Must Say Hello To Everybody'' is a book of short stories in the form of letters by William Saroyan. The stories often recollect meetings, relationships, observations, ask questions and won ...
or Don't Go But If You Must Say Hello To Everybody''. Balzac's vision of a society in which class, money and personal ambition are the key players has been endorsed by critics of both left-wing and right-wing political persuasions. Marxist Friedrich Engels wrote: "I have learned more rom Balzacthan from all the professional historians, economists and statisticians put together". Balzac has received high praise from critics as diverse as
Walter Benjamin Walter Bendix Schönflies Benjamin ( ; ; 15 July 1892 – 26 September 1940) was a German-Jewish philosopher, cultural critic, media theorist, and essayist. An eclectic thinker who combined elements of German idealism, Jewish mysticism, Western M ...
and
Camille Paglia Camille Anna Paglia ( ; born April 2, 1947) is an American academic, social critic and Feminism, feminist. Paglia was a professor at the University of the Arts (Philadelphia), University of the Arts in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania from 1984 until ...
. He was also praised by James Baldwin, who said in 1984: "I'm sure that my life in France would have been very different had I not met Balzac. e taught methe way that country and its society works." In 1970
Roland Barthes Roland Gérard Barthes (; ; 12 November 1915 – 25 March 1980) was a French literary theorist, essayist, philosopher, critic, and semiotician. His work engaged in the analysis of a variety of sign systems, mainly derived from Western popu ...
published '' S/Z'', a detailed analysis of Balzac's story '' Sarrasine'' and a key work in structuralist literary criticism.
Carlos Fuentes Carlos Fuentes Macías (; ; November 11, 1928 – May 15, 2012) was a Mexican novelist and essayist. Among his works are ''The Death of Artemio Cruz'' (1962), '' Aura'' (1962), '' Terra Nostra'' (1975), '' The Old Gringo'' (1985) and '' Christop ...
, sometimes called "the Balzac of Mexico", cited Balzac as a major influence on his writing. Balzac has also influenced popular culture. Many of his works have been made into popular films and television serials, including:
Travers Vale Travers Edmund Vale, born Solomon Flohm, was an English-born silent film film director, director. Raised primarily in Victoria (state), Victoria, Australia, he worked as a photographer, playwright and theatre manager there and in New Zealand pri ...
's ''Père Goriot'' (1915), ''Les Chouans'' (1947), ''Le Père Goriot'' (1968 BBC mini-series), and ''La Cousine Bette'' (1974 BBC mini-series, starring Margaret Tyzack and
Helen Mirren Dame Helen Mirren (; born Ilyena Lydia Vasilievna Mironov; 26 July 1945) is an English actor. With a career spanning over six decades of Helen Mirren on screen and stage, screen and stage, List of awards and nominations received by Helen Mirre ...
; 1998 film, starring
Jessica Lange Jessica Phyllis Lange (; born April 20, 1949) is an American actress. With a career spanning over five decades, she is known for her roles Jessica Lange on screen and stage, on stage and screen. She has received List of awards and nominati ...
). Balzac is mentioned, along with Chaucer and Rabelais, to humorous effect (as authors of allegedly unreliable morals) in
Meredith Willson Robert Reiniger Meredith Willson (May 18, 1902 – June 15, 1984) was an American flautist, composer, conductor, musical arranger, bandleader, playwright, and writer. He is perhaps best known for writing the book, music, and lyrics for the 1 ...
's musical ''
The Music Man ''The Music Man'' is a musical theatre, musical with book, music, and lyrics by Meredith Willson, based on a story by Willson and Franklin Lacey. The plot concerns a confidence trick, con man Harold Hill, who poses as a boys' band organizer and ...
''. He is included in
François Truffaut François Roland Truffaut ( , ; ; 6 February 1932 – 21 October 1984) was a French filmmaker, actor, and critic. He is widely regarded as one of the founders of the French New Wave. He came under the tutelage of film critic Andre Bazin as a ...
's 1959 film, ''
The 400 Blows ''The 400 Blows'' () is a 1959 French Coming-of-age film, coming-of-age Drama (film and television), drama film, and the directorial debut of François Truffaut, who also co-wrote the film. Shot in the anamorphic format List of anamorphic forma ...
''. Truffaut believed Balzac and Proust to be the greatest French writers. His life was dramatised as the 1950 Australian radio play '' Balzac''.


Works


Novels

*'' Les Chouans'' (1829) *'' La Maison du chat-qui-pelote'' (1829) *'' La Vendetta'' (1830) *''
La Peau de chagrin ''La Peau de chagrin'' (, ''The Skin of Shagreen''), known in English as ''The Magic Skin'' and ''The Wild Ass's Skin'', is an 1831 novel by French novelist and playwright Honoré de Balzac (1799–1850). Set in early 19th-century Paris, it tel ...
'' (1831) *'' Les Proscrits'' (1831) *'' Louis Lambert'' (1832) *'' Eugénie Grandet'' (1833) *'' Le Médecin de campagne'' (1833) *'' Ferragus, chef des Dévorants'' (1833) *'' La Duchesse de Langeais'' (1834) *'' La Recherche de l'absolu'' (1834) *'' Séraphîta'' (1834) *'' Le Père Goriot'' (1835) *'' Le Lys dans la vallée'' (1835) *'' Le Contrat de mariage'' (1835) *'' La Vieille Fille'' (1836) *'' César Birotteau'' (1837) *'' La Muse du département'' (1832–1837) *'' Le Cabinet des Antiques'' (1838) *'' Une fille d'Ève'' (1838) *'' Béatrix'' (1839) *'' Le Curé de village'' (1839) *''Un grand homme de province à Paris'' (1839) *'' Ursule Mirouët'' (1841) *''
Une ténébreuse affaire ''Une ténébreuse affaire'' (English language, English "A Murky Business" or "A Historical Mystery") is a novel by Honoré de Balzac, published in 1841. It was originally published in serial form in ''Le Journal du Commerce''. It is one of the ' ...
'' (1841) *'' Mémoires de deux jeunes mariées'' (1841) *'' La Fausse Maîtresse'' (1841) *'' La Femme de trente ans'' (1829–1842) *'' Albert Savarus'' (1842) *'' La Rabouilleuse'' (1842) *'' Un début dans la vie'' (1842) *'' Illusions perdues'' (1837–1843) *'' Honorine'' (1843) *'' Modeste Mignon'' (1844) *'' La Cousine Bette'' (1846) *'' Splendeurs et misères des courtisanes'' (1838–1847) *'' Le Cousin Pons'' (1847) *'' L'Envers de l'histoire contemporaine'' (1848) *'' Les Paysans'' (1855) *'' La Petite Bourgeoise'' (1850)


Published pseudonymously


As "Lord Rhône", in collaboration

*''L'Héritière de Birague'' (1822) *''Jean-Louis'' (1822)


As "Horace de Saint-Aubin"

*''Clotilde de Lusignan'' (1822) *''Le Centenaire'' (1822) *''Le Vicaire des Ardennes'' (1822) *''La Dernière Fée'' (1823) *''Annette et le Criminal (Argow le Pirate)'' (1824) *''Wann-Chlore'' (1826)


Published anonymously

*''Du Droit d'aînesse'' (1824) *''Histoire impartiale des Jésuites'' (1824) *''Code des gens honnêtes'' (1826)


Ghost written

*;''Maximes et Pensées de Napoléon recueillies par J. L. Gaudy (Jeune)'' (1838):J.-L. Gaudy Jr was a former hatter who wanted the Cross of the
Légion d'Honneur The National Order of the Legion of Honour ( ), formerly the Imperial Order of the Legion of Honour (), is the highest and most prestigious French national order of merit, both military and Civil society, civil. Currently consisting of five cl ...
. Balzac wrote this book with the aim of obtaining it for him. The plan was that the book be dedicated to
Louis-Philippe I Louis Philippe I (6 October 1773 – 26 August 1850), nicknamed the Citizen King, was King of the French from 1830 to 1848, the penultimate monarch of France, and the last French monarch to bear the title "King". He abdicated from his thron ...
and that the flattery of its apparent author would be rewarded. It succeeded, with M. Gaudy being awarded the medal, and Balzac receiving FF4000. Although Balzac had been jotting down the sayings of
Napoléon I Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...
since the early 1830s, the book contained several things that Balzac had simply invented himself. Gordon Robb observed that they "seemed surprisingly absolutist, even for Napoleon". Unlike '' Napoléon's Military Maxims'', which is generally considered to be a legitimate collection of 78 of Napoléon's maxims, Balzac's collection contains over 500, and many of its war maxims are significantly different to those in any edition of the ''Military Maxims''. The book being popular over the years, a French-Canadian edition was published in particular in 1976, with an introduction by Jan Doat and a preface by
Ben Weider Benjamin Weider, (1 February 1923 – 17 October 2008) was a Canadian soldier, author, historian ( Napoleonic history), fitness proponent, benefactor of the arts, and entrepreneur. He co-founded the International Federation of BodyBuilders (IF ...
, which organized 525 maxims under 4 main entries; and suffixed Balzac's collection with Napoléon's ''Sur l'Angleterre''.


Incomplete at time of death

*''Le Corsaire'' (opera) *''Sténie'' *''Falthurne'' *''Corsino'' *''Le Député d'Arcis''


Novellas

*'' Le Bal de Sceaux'' (1830) *'' Sarrasine'' (1830) *'' Une double famille'' (1830) *'' La Paix du ménage'' (1830) *'' Gobseck'' (1830) *'' El Verdugo'' (1830) *'' Le Colonel Chabert'' (1832) *'' Le Curé de Tours'' (1832) *'' La Fille aux yeux d'or'' (1835) *'' Les Secrets de la princesse de Cadignan'' (1839) *'' Z. Marcas'' (1840) *'' L'Amour masqué'' (1911)


Short story collection

*'' Les Cent Contes drolatiques'' (1832–1837)


Short stories

*" Étude de femme" (1830) *" Adieu" (1830) *" Le Chef-d'œuvre inconnu" (1831) *" La Grande Bretèche" (1831) *" Le Réquisitionnaire" (1831) *" L'Auberge rouge" (1831) *" La Comédie du diable" (1831) *"
La Bourse ''La Bourse'' (''The Purse'') is a short story by the French novelist Honoré de Balzac. It was published in 1832 by Mame-Delaunay as one of the ''Scènes de la vie privée'' (''Scenes of Private Life'') in '' La Comédie humaine''. Later edit ...
" (1832) *" La Grenadière" (1832) *" Le Message" (1832) *" Un drame au bord de la mer'' (1834) *" La Messe de l'athée" (1836) *" Facino Cane" (1837) *" Le Succube" (1837) *" Gambara" (1837) *" Massimilla Doni" (1837) *" Pierre Grassou" (1839) *" Un épisode sous la Terreur" (1842)


Plays

*'' L'École des ménages'' (1839) *'' Vautrin'' (1839) *'' Pierre Grassou'' (1839) *'' Les Ressources de Quinola'' (1842) *'' Paméla Giraud'' (1842) *'' La Marâtre'' (1848) *'' Mercadet ou le faiseur'' (1848)


Tragic verse

*'' Cromwell'' (1819)


See also

* ''L'Année balzacienne'' * Balzac Society of America * '' Balzac and the Little Chinese Seamstress'' (''film'') * List of works by Alexandre Falguière (''statue of Balzac'') *
Rzewuski family The House of Rzewuski () was an important Polish szlachta, noble family (magnates) in the 17th century during the era of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. History The family originated from the village Bejdy near the town of Łosice in th ...
(''Mme. Eve de Balzac'') *
Henry James Henry James ( – ) was an American-British author. He is regarded as a key transitional figure between literary realism and literary modernism, and is considered by many to be among the greatest novelists in the English language. He was the ...
* Popular novel in France


Notes


References


Sources

* Adamson, Donald (1986). "Le Père Goriot devant la critique anglaise". ''L'Année balzacienne'' . 7. . In
L'Année balzacienne
'. II. 20. Garnier Frères. 1999. *Adamson, Donald (2001). ''Balzac and the Tradition of the European Novel'' *Bertault, Philippe (1963). ''Balzac and The Human Comedy''. English version by Richard Monges. New York: NYU Press. * Brooks, Peter (2005). ''Realist Vision''. New Haven: Yale University Press. * *Helm, W.H. (1905)
''Aspects of Balzac''
London: Eveleigh Nash. * James, Henry (1878)
''French Poets and Novelists''
London: Macmillan & Co., pp. 84–189. *James, Henry (1914)
''Notes on Novelists''
New York: Charles Scribner's Sons, pp. 109–159. *Lehan, Richard (2005). ''Realism and Naturalism''. Madison: The University of Wisconsin Press. *Leone, Giuseppe (1999). "Honoré de Balzac, una creatività "sempre recidiva, mai stanca" – Con lui il romanzo s'è fatto uomo", su "Ricorditi di me...", in "Lecco 2000", Lecco, febbraio 1999 *Maurois, André (1965). ''Prométhée ou la vie de Balzac.'' Paris: Hachette. *Lotte, Fernand (1952). ' . Paris: Corti. *Prendergast, Christopher (1978). ''Balzac: Fiction and Melodrama''. London: Edward Arnold Ltd. * Pritchett, V. S. (1973). ''Balzac''. New York: Alfred A. Knopf Inc. * Proust, Marcel (1994). ''Against Sainte-Beuve and Other Essays''. Harmondsworth: Penguin Books. * *Rogers, Samuel (1953). ''Balzac & The Novel''. New York: Octagon Books. * Saintsbury, George (1901)
"Honoré de Balzac"
In: ''The Works of Honoré de Balzac'', Vol. I. Philadelphia: Avil Publishing Company, pp. vii–xivi. * *Stowe, William W. (1983). "Systematic Realism". In: '. Edited by Harold Bloom. Philadelphia: Chelsea House Publishers. * Zweig, Stefan (1946). ''Balzac''. New York: Viking Press.


External links

* * * *
Honoré de Balzac's Collection
a
One More LibraryHonoré de Balzac's works
text, concordances and frequency lists * by Professor Albert Keim and M. Louis Lumet

*
Victor Hugo's eulogy for Honoré de Balzac''Études balzaciennes'' (Balzac Studies)
La Sorbonne The University of Paris (), known Metonymy, metonymically as the Sorbonne (), was the leading university in Paris, France, from 1150 to 1970, except for 1793–1806 during the French Revolution. Emerging around 1150 as a corporation associated wit ...
, Paris {{DEFAULTSORT:Balzac, Honore De 1799 births 1850 deaths Writers from Tours, France University of Paris alumni French monarchists French Roman Catholic writers French male short story writers 19th-century French short story writers French fantasy writers French literary critics French historical novelists 19th-century French dramatists and playwrights 19th-century French novelists Burials at Père Lachaise Cemetery Obscenity controversies in literature Knights of the Legion of Honour French male novelists French male dramatists and playwrights French publishers (people) Writers of the Romantic era 19th-century French male writers Writers of historical fiction set in the early modern period 19th-century pseudonymous writers French pamphleteers French magazine editors French magazine founders French magazine publishers (people)