History Of The Netherlands (1939–1945)

Despite Dutch neutrality, Nazi Germany invaded the Netherlands on 10 May 1940 as part of '' Fall Gelb'' (Case Yellow). On 15 May 1940, one day after the bombing of Rotterdam, the Dutch forces surrendered. The Dutch government and the royal family relocated to London. Princess Juliana and her children sought refuge in Ottawa, Canada, until after the war.

German occupation lasted in some areas until the German surrender in May 1945. Active resistance, at first carried out by a minority, grew in the course of the occupation. The occupiers deported the majority of the country's Jews to Nazi concentration camps.

Due to the high variation in the survival rate of Jewish inhabitants among local regions in the Netherlands, scholars have questioned the validity of a single explanation at the national level. In part due to the well-organised population registers, about 70% of the country's Jewish population were killed in the course of World War II—a much higher percentage than in either Belgium or France, although lower than in Lithuania. Declassified records revealed that the Germans paid a bounty to Dutch police and administration officials to locate and identify Jews, aiding in their capture.Tim Cole, Review: ''Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews''
''English Historical Review'', Volume CXXI, Issue 494, 1 December 2006, pp. 1562–1563, Communists in and around the city of Amsterdam organised the February strike—a general strike (February 1941) to protest against the persecution of Jewish citizens.

World War II occurred in four distinct phases in the Netherlands:
* September 1939 to May 1940: After the war broke out, the Netherlands declared neutrality. The country was subsequently invaded and occupied.
* May 1940 to June 1941: An economic boom caused by orders from Germany, combined with the "velvet glove" approach from Arthur Seyss-Inquart, resulted in a comparatively mild occupation.
* June 1941 to June 1944: As the war intensified, Germany demanded higher contributions from occupied territories, resulting in a decline of living standards. Repression against the Jewish population intensified and thousands were deported to extermination camps. The "velvet glove" approach ended.
* June 1944 to May 1945: Conditions deteriorated further, leading to starvation and lack of fuel. The German occupation authorities gradually lost control over the situation. Nazis wanted to make a last stand and commit acts of destruction. Others tried to mitigate the situation.

The Allies liberated most of the south of the Netherlands in the second half of 1944. The rest of the country, especially the west and north, remained under German occupation and suffered from a famine at the end of 1944, known as the " Hunger Winter". On 5 May 1945, German surrender at Lüneburg Heath led to the final liberation of the whole country.

Background

The Dutch colonies such as the Dutch East Indies (modern Indonesia) allowed the Netherlands to be one of the top five oil producers in the world at the time and to have the world's largest aircraft factory in the Interbellum (Fokker), which aided the neutrality of the Netherlands and the success of its arms dealings in the First World War. The country was one of the richest in Europe and could easily have afforded a large and modern military . Dutch governments between 1929 and 1943 were dominated by Christian and centre-right political parties. From 1933, the Netherlands was hit by the Great Depression, which had begun in 1929. The incumbent government of Hendrikus Colijn pursued a programme of extensive cuts in public spending in order to maintain the value of the guilder, which resulted in workers' riots in Amsterdam and a naval mutiny between 1933 and 1934. Eventually, in 1936, the government was forced to abandon the gold standard and to devalue the currency.

Numerous fascist movements emerged in the Netherlands during the Great Depression era, which were inspired by Italian fascism or German Nazism, but they never attracted enough members to be an effective mass movement. The National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands (Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging, NSB) supported by the National Socialist German Workers' Party which took power in Germany in 1933, attempted to expand in 1935. Nazi-style racial ideology had limited appeal in the Netherlands, as did its calls to violence. At the outbreak of the Second World War, the NSB was already declining in both members and voters.

During the interwar period, the government undertook a significant increase in civil infrastructure projects and land reclamation, including the Zuiderzee Works. That resulted in the final draining of seawater from the Wieringermeer polder and the completion of the Afsluitdijk.

Neutrality

During World War I, the Dutch government, under Pieter Cort van der Linden, had managed to preserve Dutch neutrality throughout the conflict. In the Interwar Period, the Netherlands had continued to pursue its "Independence Policy" even after the rise to power of the Nazi Party in Germany in 1933. The Anti-Revolutionary Party's conservative prime minister, Hendrikus Colijn, who held power from 1933 until 1939, believed that the Netherlands could never withstand an attack by a major power. Pragmatically, the government did not spend much on the military. Although military spending was doubled between 1938 and 1939, amid rising international tensions, it constituted only 4% of national spending in 1939, in contrast to nearly 25% of Nazi Germany. The Dutch government believed it could rely on its neutrality or at least the informal support of foreign powers to defend its interests in case of war. The government began to work on plans for the defence of the country, which included the "New Dutch Waterline", an area to the east of Amsterdam that would be flooded. From 1939, fortified positions were constructed, including the Grebbe and Peel-Raam Lines, to protect the key cities of Dordrecht, Utrecht, Haarlem and Amsterdam, and creating a ''Vesting Holland'' (or "Fortress Holland").

In late 1939, with Britain and France already at war with Germany, the German government issued a guarantee of neutrality to the Netherlands. The Dutch military was gradually mobilised from August 1939 onwards, reaching its full strength by April 1940.

German invasion

On the morning of 10 May 1940, the German Army simultaneously invaded The Netherlands, Belgium, and Luxembourg without a formal declaration of war. The attackers meant to draw Allied forces away from the Ardennes, to lure British and French forces deeper into Belgium, and to pre-empt a possible British invasion in North Holland. The ''Luftwaffe'' also sought to take over Dutch airfields on the North Sea to launch air raids against Great Britain.

The armed forces of the Netherlands, with insufficient and outdated weapons and equipment, were caught largely unprepared. Much of their weaponry had not changed since the First World War. In particular, the Royal Netherlands Army did not have comparable armoured forces and could mount only a limited number of armoured cars and tankettes. The air force had only 140 aircraft, mostly outdated biplanes, 65 of which were destroyed on the first day of the campaign.

The invading forces advanced rapidly but faced significant resistance. A ''Wehrmacht'' parachute assault on The Hague aimed at capturing the Dutch government, Queen Wilhelmina, and the key airfields at Ockenburg and Ypenburg was thwarted by Dutch ground forces with heavy casualties. This allowed the royal family and top government officials to escape to London, taking the national bullion and diamond stocks, and form a Dutch government-in-exile. The Dutch also succeeded in destroying significant numbers of transport aircraft that the Germans would need for their planned invasion of Britain.

However, the German forces succeeded in crossing the Maas river in the Netherlands on the first day, which allowed the ''Wehrmacht'' to outflank the nearby Belgian Fort Ében-Émael and force the Belgian army to withdraw from the German border.

In the eastern Netherlands, the Germans succeeded in pushing the Dutch back from the Grebbe Line, but their advance was slowed by the Dutch fortifications on the narrow Afsluitdijk Causeway that linked the northeastern and the northwestern parts of the Netherlands. The German forces advanced rapidly and, by the fourth day, were in control of most of the east of the country.

The Dutch realised that neither British nor French troops could reach the Netherlands in sufficient numbers to halt the invasion, particularly with the speed of the German advance into Belgium.

Bombing of Rotterdam

Fighting in Rotterdam had taken place since the first day of the campaign, when German infantrymen in seaplanes landed on the Maas River and captured several bridges intact. The Germans hesitated to risk a tank attack on the city for fear of heavy casualties. Instead, the German commander presented an ultimatum to the Dutch commander in the city. He demanded the surrender of the Dutch garrison and threatened to destroy the city by aerial bombing if it did not accept. The ultimatum was returned on a technicality since it had not been signed by the German commander. While the corrected ultimatum was being resubmitted, Luftwaffe bombers, unaware that negotiations were ongoing, struck the city.

During the Rotterdam Blitz, between 800 and 900 Dutch civilians were killed, and homes were destroyed. The bombers' targets were the civilian areas of Rotterdam, rather than the town's defences. Under pressure from local officials, the garrison commander surrendered the city and his men on the evening of the 14th with the permission of Henri Winkelman, the Dutch commander-in-chief. That opened up the German advance into "Fortress Holland".

Dutch surrender

The Dutch high command was shocked by the Rotterdam Blitz. Knowing that the army was running low on supplies and ammunition and receiving news that the city of Utrecht had been given an ultimatum similar to that of Rotterdam, Winkelman held a meeting with other Dutch generals. They decided that further resistance was futile and wanted to protect civilian residents. In the afternoon of 14 May, Winkelman issued a proclamation to his army to order them to surrender:

On 15 May, the Netherlands officially signed the surrender with Germany. Dutch forces in the province of Zeeland, which had come under French control, continued fighting alongside French forces until 17 May, when the bombardment of the town of Middelburg forced them, too, to surrender. The Dutch Empire, in particular the Dutch East Indies, supported the Allies; the colonies were unaffected by the surrender. Many ships of the Royal Dutch Navy in Dutch waters fled to the United Kingdom.

During the four-day campaign, about 2,300 Dutch soldiers were killed and 7000 wounded, and more than 3000 Dutch civilians also died. The Germans lost 2,200 men killed and 7000 wounded. In addition, 1,300 German soldiers captured by the Dutch during the campaign, many around The Hague, had been shipped to Britain and remained POWs for the rest of the war.

Queen Wilhelmina and the Dutch government succeeded in escaping from the Netherlands before the surrender and formed a government-in-exile. Princess Juliana and her children went to Canada for safety.

German occupation

Occupation government

After a brief period of martial law, Germany invited the Dutch government to return from London and continue to govern under German control, as France and Denmark had done. When government leaders refused, Germany established the ''Reichskommissariat Niederlande'' (“Dutch Imperial Commission”) as the occupation regime, assuming power on 29 May 1940, with its headquarters in The Hague. Austrian Nazi Arthur Seyss-Inquart was installed as Reichskommissar, with his office in a mansion on Museumplein in Amsterdam, today the home of the American consulate. Fellow Austrian Hanns Albin Rauter was assigned as SS and police leader, reporting to Seyss-Inquart and to SS chief Heinrich Himmler.

A long-term aim of the Nazis was to incorporate the Netherlands into the Greater Germanic Reich. Adolf Hitler thought highly of the Dutch people, considering them fellow members of the Aryan "master race".

In his first public address on 29 May, Seyss-Inquart promised friendly governance:

However Seyss-Inquart began personally selecting and installing top officials, and one of his earliest orders was that German men in uniform be served first in Dutch shops and restaurants.

As in other occupied countries, the ''Ordnungspolizei'' ("Regulatory Police", commonly known as the "Green Police") were installed as the law-enforcement organization. The Green Police were supplemented from 1942 by the Voluntary Police Support (VHP), a neighborhood-watch organization of sympathetic Dutch civilians. The ''Sicherheitsdienst'' intelligence agency, known as the SD, operated from a headquarters in The Hague.

Also established in July 1940 was the ' (Dutch Construction Service) to dismantle the Dutch army and rebuild Dutch infrastructure. This would later be merged with the ' (Dutch Labour Service), with a focus on building a labour force for the German war effort.

The NSB

The Dutch Nazi party (''Nationaal-Socialistische Beweging'', or NSB) had been founded in 1931 but was not politically powerful prior to the war. Under German occupation, the NSB quickly became the political arm of Dutch collaboration with German occupiers, quadrupling in membership to about 80,000, but never counting more than 1% of the Dutch population (3% of adult males) as members. The NSB played an important role in lower government and civil service. Every new mayor appointed by the German occupation government was a member of the NSB. However, for most higher functions, the Germans preferred to leave the existing elite in place, since they knew that the NSB neither offered enough suitable candidates nor enjoyed enough popular support.

Soon after the occupation, Germany banned all socialist and communist political parties. In July 1940, the ' (Dutch Union) party was established to oppose the NSB and preserve Dutch culture. Within a few months its membership grew to 800,000, the highest membership any Dutch political party has ever had. However there were internal disagreements over the extent to which the party should cooperate with German occupiers, and in December 1941 Germany banned all parties other than the NSB.

New NSB members were shunned by some existing members who accused them of opportunism; ''meikevers'' ( Maybugs) was a common slur, referring to the month of the German invasion.

The NSB sponsored paramilitary squads known as “blackshirts” who harassed Jews and conducted other targeted violence. The NSB’s co-founder Anton Mussert remained its leader throughout the war. In September 1940, under German pressure, Mussert organised the Dutch wing of the Waffen-SS. About 22,500 Dutch men enlisted. Most of these fought on the Eastern front against Russia, and more than 7,000 died.

Collaboration

Many Dutch people chose or were forced to collaborate with the German regime or joined the German armed forces, which usually would mean being placed in the ''Waffen-SS''. Others, like members of the Henneicke Column, were actively involved in capturing hiding Jews for a price and delivering them to the German occupiers. It is estimated that the Henneicke Column captured around 8000 to 9000 Dutch Jews who were ultimately murdered in the German death camps.

After the war broke out, the NSB sympathised with the Germans but nevertheless advocated strict neutrality for the Netherlands. In May 1940, after the German invasion, NSB members and sympathizers were put in custody by the Dutch government. Soon after the Dutch defeat, on 14 May 1940, they were set free by German troops. In June 1940, NSB leader Anton Mussert held a speech in Lunteren in which he called for the Dutch to embrace the Germans and renounce the Dutch Monarchy, which had fled to London.

After the German signing of surrender on 6 May 1945, the NSB was outlawed. Mussert was arrested the following day, and was executed on 7 May 1946. Many members of the NSB were arrested, but few were convicted.

In September 1940, the '' Nederlandsche SS'' was formed as "Afdeling XI" (Department XI) of the NSB. It was the equivalent to the ''Allgemeine SS'' in Germany. In November 1942, its name was changed to ''Germaansche SS in Nederland''. The Nederlandsche SS was primarily a political formation but also served as manpower reservoir for the ''Waffen-SS''.

Between and Dutchmen volunteered to serve in the ''Waffen-SS''. The most notable formations were the 4th SS Volunteer ''Panzergrenadier'' Brigade ''Nederland'' which saw action exclusively on the Eastern Front and the SS Volunteer Grenadier Brigade ''Landstorm Nederland'' which fought in Belgium and the Netherlands.

The ''Nederland'' brigade participated in fighting on the Eastern Front during the Battle of Narva, with several soldiers receiving the Knight's Cross of the Iron Cross, Nazi Germany's highest award for bravery.

Another form of collusion was providing goods and services essential to the German war efforts. Especially in 1940 and 1941, when a German victory was still a possibility, Dutch companies were willing to provide such goods to the greedily-purchasing Germans. Strategic supplies fell in German hands, and in May 1940 German officers placed their first orders with Dutch shipyards. The co-operation with the German industry was facilitated by the fact that due to the occupation the German market 'opened' and due to facilitating behaviour from the side of the partly pro-German elite. Many directors justified their behaviour with the argument that otherwise, the Germans would have closed down their company or would have replaced them with NSB members and so they could still exercise some limited influence. After the war, no heavy sentences were dealt to high officials and company directors.

Life in occupied Netherlands

Initially, Seyss-Inquart applied the 'velvet glove' approach; by appeasing the population he tried to win them for the National Socialist ideology. That meant that he kept repression and economic extraction as low as possible and tried to co-operate with the elite and government officials in the country. There was also a pragmatic reason since the NSB offered insufficient candidates and had no great popular support. The German market was opened to the Netherlands, and Dutch companies benefited greatly from export to Germany even though, if the goods might be used for German war efforts, such trade might be seen as collaboration. In any case, despite the British victory in the Battle of Britain, many considered a German victory a realistic possibility and that it would therefore be wise to side with the winner. As a result, with the ban on other political parties, the NSB grew rapidly. Although gasoline pumps had been sealed in 1940, the occupation seemed tolerable.

The German occupiers implemented a policy of ''Gleichschaltung'' ("enforced conformity" or "coordination") and systematically eliminated non-Nazi organisations. In 1940, the German regime more or less immediately outlawed all socialist and communist parties. In 1941, it forbade all parties except for the National Socialist Movement in the Netherlands.

''Gleichschaltung'' was an enormous shock to the Dutch, who had traditionally had separate institutions for all main religious groups, particularly Catholic and Protestant, because of decades of pillarisation. The process was opposed by the Catholic Church in the Netherlands, and in 1941, all Roman Catholics were urged by Dutch bishops to leave associations that had been Nazified.

After the failure of Operation Barbarossa in June 1941 and the subsequent German defeats at Moscow and Stalingrad in the Eastern Front of World War II, Germany increased economic extraction from its occupied territories, including the Netherlands. Economic extraction increased, and production was limited mostly to sectors relevant for the war effort. Repression increased, especially against the Jewish population.

After the Allied invasion of June 1944, the railroad strike and the frontline running through the Netherlands caused the Randstad to be cut off from food and fuel. That resulted in acute need and starvation, the '' Hongerwinter''. The German authorities lost more and more control over the situation as the population tried to keep what little they had away from German confiscations and were less inclined to co-operate now that it was clear that Germany would lose the war. Some Nazis prepared to make a last stand against the Allied troops, followed Berlin's Nero Decree and destroyed goods and property (destructions of the Amsterdam and Rotterdam ports, inundations), but others tried to mediate the situation.

Among the notable social organisations during occupation was the ''Nationale Jeugdstorm'' ("National Youth-storm"), a Dutch counterpart to the Hitler Youth and an alternative to the banned Scouting Nederland with many parallels to both organisations. At its peak the NJS had over 12,000 members, mostly children of NSB members. When they reached 18 years of age, NJS members were assigned roles in the German war effort, with boys being conscripted to the Dutch Labour Service or the Waffen-SS.

Rations and restrictions

Within five weeks of occupation, rations were set on bread, meat, milk, and sugar, the first of many limitations to come. Propaganda posters warned the Dutch against hoarding, with slogans like “Don’t be a hamster.” At times, the resistance would raid distribution centres to obtain ration cards to be distributed to those in hiding.

As in other countries at war, the entire country was required to observe a nighttime curfew and blackout conditions, with tarpaper used to cover windows at night. Civilians lived in fear of a heavy fine or a warning shot through their windows if any light was visible from the exterior. These conditions made the stars clearly visible even in city centers; astronomy books were popular in local libraries.

Raw materials quickly became harder to come by. In 1940, the occupiers announced that all bronze and copper was required to be handed in at designated locations. 6,700 of the 9,000 church bells in The Netherlands were eventually confiscated and melted down. Tires for bicycles and motor vehicles were especially difficult to find; many bicycles were fitted with inferior hard rubber or wooden tires. Gasoline was rationed until only German vehicles could be found on the roads.

Media

The Dutch were subject to propaganda from both sides of the war. German propaganda encouraged Netherlanders to accept and collaborate with the occupiers, while the BBC European Service hosted a radio programme called Radio Oranje operated by the Dutch government-in-exile. Despite German jamming signals, many Dutch people were able to modify their radios to receive the program. In May 1943, the Germans ended their own radio propaganda and ordered all Dutch citizens to turn in their radios; approximately 80% did so, but thousands of radios were hidden, and resistance papers re-printed radio news along with instructions for building covert receivers.

About 1,100 illegal newspapers were published over the course of the occupation. Some were simple leaflets, printed and distributed in small areas. Others, including Het Parool, Vrij Nederland, De Waarheid, Trouw, and , were printed professionally with a secret nationwide network for reporting and distribution. The papers used a clandestine cell system, with readers receiving deliveries from unknown persons and then anonymously distributing them further.

Military installations

Bunkers and other military buildings were constructed throughout the country, often disguised as civilian houses with false windows and even geraniums.

Detention camps

The first organised detention camp on Dutch soil was Kamp Schoorl, previously a Dutch army camp, on the coast. Prisoners of war and other detainees were temporarily held here before being transferred elsewhere or released.

In the summer of 1941, the occupiers began establishing new camps. The most prominent were Kamp Amersfoort and Kamp Erika, which allowed the Germans to close Kamp Schoorl in October 1941. From December 1942, Camp Barneveld housed higher-class Dutch Jews in favorable conditions. In 1943, Herzogenbusch concentration camp was established in Vught, the only SS concentration camp outside of Germany.

Traditional prisons were also heavily used—notably Scheveningen prison, which had a German-built block for political prisoners. 28,000 were held there during the occupation. Detention House I at Weteringschans in Amsterdam also housed 25,000 prisoners. Some prisoners were detained indefinitely, while others were executed (often in reprisal for resistance attacks) or released for various reasons.

In addition to local detainees, Kamp Amersfoort housed German prisoners of war from as far away as the Eastern front. The present-day Soviet Field of Honour in Leusden includes the graves of 101 Soviet soldiers who died or were executed there.

In 1942 the Westerbork transit camp, previously built by the Dutch to process Jewish refugees from Germany, received its first trainload of detainees to be deported back to Germany. By far the most well-equipped camp, Westerbork featured a hospital, dental clinic, day care, and school. Despite these amenities, Westerbork was intended only as temporary accommodation before sending prisoners to concentration camps.

Though relatively few people died in the Dutch camps, summary executions and torture were common, and large numbers of detainees (including Anne Frank) died or were killed after being transferred to other camps.

Luftwaffe

The Luftwaffe was especially interested in the Netherlands, as the country was designated to become the main area for the air force bases from which to attack the United Kingdom. The Germans started construction of ten major military air bases on the day after the formal Dutch surrender, 15 May 1940. Each of them was intended to have at least 2 or 3 hard surface runways, a dedicated railway connection, major built-up and heated repair and overhaul facilities, extensive indoor and outdoor storage spaces, and most had housing and facilities for 2000 to 3000 men. Each air base also had an auxiliary and often a decoy airfield, complete with mock-up planes made from plywood. The largest became Deelen Air Base, north of Arnhem (twelve former German buildings at Deelen are now national monuments). Adjacent to Deelen, the large central air control bunker for Belgium and the Netherlands, Diogenes, was set up.

Within a year, the attack strategy had to be altered to a defensive operation. The ensuing air war over the Netherlands cost almost airmen (Allied and German) their lives and 6000 planes went down over the country, an average of three per day during the five years of the war.

The Netherlands turned into the first line of western air defence for Germany and its industrial heartland of the Ruhrgebiet, complete with extensive flak, sound detection installations and later radar. The first German night-hunter squadron started its operations from the Netherlands.

Some Luftwaffe men and women were involved in the Netherlands throughout the war.

Labour requirement

The Nazis had encouraged Dutch people to migrate to Germany for work since the late 1930s. These efforts continued early in the occupation, but the “labour requirement” (''arbeidsinzet'' in Dutch, ''arbeitseinsatz'' in German) was also instituted. At first, only the unemployed and specialized labourers were compelled to join the German war effort.

Conscriptions of Dutch men into the Wehrmacht began in 1941. Facing an increasing demand for labor, on 29 April 1943, Germany announced that all former Dutch soldiers—300,000 men—were to be transported to Germany as prisoners of war. The Dutch population responded with the so-called “ milk strike” (so named for the refusal of milkmen to complete their deliveries), the largest strike against German occupation of the war and the largest in Dutch history. The strike in turn produced harsh German reprisals: 80 strikers were summarily executed, and dozens more were killed in related violence. In Opende, a German truck opened fire without provocation against a group of gathered civilians. Support for Dutch resistance rose sharply as a result of the reprisals.

On 4 May 1943, the ''arbeidsinzet'' was expanded to all Dutch men between 18 and 35. Many refused or hid, producing a fraction of the needed labour force; by 1944, Germany had expanded the age range to 16-40 and begun rounding up eligible men for deportation, sometimes raiding church services to do so. A single roundup in Rotterdam in October 1944 gathered 50,000 men to be deported. In all, over 500,000 Dutch people—one third of the eligible population—ended up working in Germany in some capacity.

Atlantic Wall

The Netherlands was part of the Atlantic Wall series of fortifications against an Allied invasion, with civilian infrastructure replaced en masse with military defenses. The two most secured locations were at and IJmuiden, defending the river approaches to Rotterdam and Amsterdam, respectively. The greatest civilian impact came in Scheveningen and The Hague, where 135,000 residents were forcibly moved and their homes demolished to allow construction of a massive water barrier. Dutch firms collaborated with the German army to build many defensive fortifications. German facilities in IJmuiden, Scheveningen, and Terschelling are maintained at Atlantic Wall museums.

The Atlantic Wall, a gigantic coastal defence line built by the Germans along the entire European coast from southwestern France to Denmark and Norway, included the coastline of the Netherlands. Some towns, such as Scheveningen, were evacuated because of that. In The Hague alone, 3200 houses were demolished and 2594 were dismantled. houses were cleared, and people were forced to move. The ''Arbeitseinsatz'' also included forcing the Dutch to work on these projects, but a form of passive resistance took place there with people working slowly or poorly.

Aerial battles

The Netherlands lies directly between the UK and many strategic targets in Germany, so Allied bombers were a common sight and sound in the sky for the duration of the war—typically British bombing raids at night and American raids during the day. High-altitude bombers were the first contrails that many Dutch residents had ever seen. The Germans in turn installed anti-aircraft batteries throughout the country, which continually panned the sky at night with searchlights and opened fire with guns and flak upon spotting a plane.

Aerial battles were spectacular sights on clear days, and flak debris, downed planes, and airmen (living or dead) rained down on Dutch soil. Air raids sometimes targeted the Netherlands, such as an assault on the Philips factory in Eindhoven on 6 December 1942 which killed 148 civilians. These became more intense during Operation Market Garden. An Allied raid on Arnhem on 17 September 1944 killed about 100 civilians, while a Luftwaffe counterattack against Eindhoven on 19 September killed 227 civilians and wounded 800. In addition, patrolling fighter planes would sometimes strafe opposing ground forces when spotted, putting civilian traffic at risk.

Later in the war, the Germans launched V1 flying bombs from The Netherlands against both England and Belgium. The first sortie against Antwerp was launched from Delft on 3 March 1945. These rockets flew as little as 900 meters overhead with a characteristic buzzing sound and often failed in flight, crashing in civilian areas—in one instance, twenty crashed in a single night.

Holocaust

The Jewish population of the Netherlands in 1939 was between and , of whom were refugees from Germany and German-controlled areas. That year, the Committee for Jewish Refugees established the Westerbork transit camp to process incoming refugees; in 1942 the German occupiers repurposed it to process outgoing Jews to labour and concentration camps. Over half of the total Jewish population—about —lived in Amsterdam; this number increased as Germans forcibly moved Dutch Jews into the city in preparation for mass deportation.

Jews were deeply integrated into Dutch culture, and there was a popular belief that they could or would not be isolated as they had been in other occupied lands. However the German authorities required Dutch businesses to register almost immediately after occupation, and by the end of 1940 required all public officials to sign an "Declaration of Aryan Descent" or be dismissed. Jewish citizens were registered and identified, first with a "J" in their identity cards and later by a Jewish star.

Often with the participation of Dutch authorities, the German occupiers systematically stripped Jews of rights and property. In 1940, there were no deportations, and only minor measures were taken against the Jews. In February 1941, the Nazis deported a small group of Dutch Jews to Mauthausen-Gusen concentration camp. The Dutch reacted with the February strike, a nationwide protest against the deportations, unique in the history of Nazi-occupied Europe. Although the strike did not accomplish much—its leaders were executed—it was an initial setback for Seyss-Inquart. He had intended both to deport the Jews and to win the Dutch over to the Nazi cause.

Before the February strike, the Nazis had installed a Jewish Council (Dutch: ''Joodse Raad''). This was a board of Jews, headed by Professor David Cohen and Abraham Asscher. Independent Jewish organisations, such as the Committee for Jewish Refugees—founded by Asscher and Cohen in 1933—were closed. The Jewish Council ultimately served as an instrument for organising the identification and deportation of Jews more efficiently; the Jews on the council were told and convinced they were helping the Jews.

In January 1942, the Jewish population was "evacuated" to the three Jewish districts of Amsterdam. In May of that year, Jews were ordered to wear Star of David badges. The Catholic Church in the Netherlands publicly condemned the government's action in a letter read at all Sunday parish services. The Nazi government began to treat the Dutch more harshly, and notable socialists were imprisoned. Later in the war, Catholic priests, including Titus Brandsma, were deported to concentration camps.

Deportations

Large-scale deportations from The Netherlands began on 15 July 1942 and ultimately included 100,000 Jews, most of whom died or were killed in German concentration camps. About 25–30,000 Jews went into hiding as ''onderduikers'' (literally “under-divers”)—most famously Anne Frank, who hid with her family in an Amsterdam house from July 1942 for over two years before being discovered.

Concentration camps were built at Vught and Amersfoort as well. Eventually, with the assistance of Dutch police and civil service, the majority of the Dutch Jews were deported to concentration camps.

Following the last major round-ups and deportations, Amsterdam—the last Jewish population center—was declared “''judenrein''” (“Jew-free”) in November 1943.

Survival rates and causes

Some 75% of the Dutch-Jewish population was killed in the Holocaust, an unusually high percentage compared to other occupied countries..

By 1945, the Dutch Jewish population was about a quarter of what it had been (about ). Of that number, about 8,500 escaped deportation by being in a mixed marriage to a non-Jew; about 16,500 hid or otherwise evaded detection by German authorities; and 7000–8000 escaped the Netherlands for the duration of the occupation. The Dutch survival rate is much lower than in neighbouring Belgium, where 60% of Jews survived, and France, where 75% survived. Historians have offered several hypotheses for the low survival rate, including:
* The Netherlands included religion in its national records, which reduced the opportunity for Jews to mask their identity.
* Dutch authorities and the Dutch people were unusually co-operative with German authorities.
* The flat, unforested Dutch landscape deprived Jews of potential hiding places.

Marnix Croes and Peter Tammes examined the survival rates among the different regions of the Netherlands. They conclude that most of the hypotheses do not explain the data. They suggest that a more likely explanation was the varying "ferocity" with which the Germans and their Dutch collaborators hunted Jews in hiding in the different regions. In 2002, Ad van Liempt published ''Kopgeld: Nederlandse premiejagers op zoek naar joden, 1943'' (Bounty: Dutch bounty hunters in search of Jews, 1943), published in English as ''Hitler's Bounty Hunters: The Betrayal of the Jews'' (2005). He found in newly-declassified records that the Germans paid a bounty to police and other collaborators, such as the Colonnie Henneicke group, for tracking down Jews.

A 2018 publication, ''De 102.000 namen'', lists the known victims of the persecution of Jewish, Sinti, and Roma people from the Netherlands; the book is published by Boom, Amsterdam, under the auspices of the Westerbork Remembrance Center.

Dutch resistance

The Dutch resistance to the Nazi occupation during World War II developed relatively slowly, but its counterintelligence, domestic sabotage, and communications networks provided key support to Allied forces beginning in 1944 and through the liberation of the country. Discovery by the Germans of involvement in the resistance meant an immediate death sentence.

The country's terrain, lack of wilderness and dense population made it difficult to conceal any illicit activities, and it was bordered by German-controlled territory, which offered no escape route except by sea. Resistance in the Netherlands took the form of small-scale decentralised cells engaged in independent activities. The Communist Party of the Netherlands, however, organised resistance from the start of the war, as did the circle of liberal democratic resisters who were linked through Professor Dr. Willem or Wim Schermerhorn to the Dutch government-in-exile in London, the LKP ("Nationale Knokploeg", or National Force Units, literal translation "Brawl Crew"). This was one of the largest resistance groups, numbering around 550 active participants; it was also heavily targeted by Nazi intelligence for destruction due to its links with the United Kingdom. Some small groups had absolutely no links to others. These groups produced forged ration cards and counterfeit money, collected intelligence, published underground newspapers, sabotaged phone lines and railways, prepared maps, and distributed food and goods. After 1942 the National Organisation (LO) and National Force Units (LKP) organised national coordination. Some contact was established with the government in London. After D-day the existing national organisations, the LKP, the OD and the Council of Resistance merged into the internal forces under the command of Prince Bernhard.

One of the riskiest activities was hiding and sheltering refugees and enemies of the Nazi regime, Jewish families, underground operatives, draft-age Dutch, and others. Collectively these people were known as ''onderduikers'' ('under-divers'). Later in the war, this system of people-hiding was also used to protect downed Allied airmen. Reportedly, resistance doctors in Heerlen concealed an entire hospital floor from German troops.

In February 1943, a Dutch resistance cell rang the doorbell of the former head of the Dutch general staff and now-collaborating Lieutenant general Hendrik Seyffardt in the Hague. Seyffardt commanded the campaign to recruit Dutch volunteers for the ''Waffen-SS'' and the German war effort on the Eastern Front. After he answered and identified himself, he was shot twice and died the following day. The assassination of the high-level official triggered a harsh reprisal from ''SS'' General Hanns Albin Rauter, who ordered the killing of 50 Dutch hostages and a series of raids on Dutch universities. On October 1 and 2, 1944, the Dutch resistance attacked German troops near the village of Putten, which resulted in war crimes on behalf of the occupying Germans. After the attack, part of the town was destroyed, and seven people were shot in the Putten raid. The entire male population of Putten was deported and most were subjected to forced labour; 48 out of 552 survived the camps. The Dutch resistance attacked Rauter's car on March 6, 1945, unaware of the identity of its occupant, which in turn led to the killings at Woeste Hoeve, where 116 men were rounded up and executed at the site of the ambush and another 147 Gestapo prisoners executed elsewhere.

Dutch government and army in exile

The Dutch army's successful resistance in the Battle for The Hague gave the royal family an opportunity to escape. Several days before the surrender, Princess Juliana, Prince Bernhard and their daughters (Princess Beatrix and Princess Irene) travelled from The Hague to London. On 13 May, Queen Wilhelmina and key members of the Dutch government followed. The royal family were guests at Buckingham Palace, where Irene was christened on 31 May. Juliana later took Beatrix and Irene to Canada, where they remained for the duration of the war.

Shortly after the German victory, the Dutch government, led by Prime Minister Dirk Jan de Geer, was invited by the Germans to return to the country and to form a pro-German puppet government, as the Vichy government had agreed to do in France. De Geer wanted to accept that invitation, but the Queen refused it and dismissed him in favour of Pieter Gerbrandy.

Dutch East Indies and war in the Far East

On 8 December 1941, the Netherlands declared war on the Empire of Japan. On 10 January 1942, the Japanese invaded the Dutch East Indies (now Indonesia).

Dutch naval ships joined forces with the Allies to form the American-British-Dutch-Australian (ABDA) Fleet, commanded by Dutch Rear Admiral Karel Doorman. On February 27–28, 1942, Doorman was ordered to take the offensive against the Imperial Japanese Navy. His objections on the matter were overruled. The ABDA fleet finally encountered the Japanese surface fleet at the Battle of the Java Sea at which Doorman gave the order to engage. During the ensuing battle, the Allied fleet suffered heavy losses. The Dutch cruisers ''Java'' and '' De Ruyter'' were lost, together with the destroyer '' Kortenaer''. The other Allied cruisers, the Australian ''Perth'', the British ''Exeter'', and the American ''Houston'', tried to disengage but were spotted by the Japanese in the following days and were eventually all destroyed. Many ABDA destroyers were also lost.

After Japanese troops had landed on Java, and the Royal Netherlands East Indies Army had been unsuccessful in stopping their advance because the Japanese could not occupy a relatively-unguarded airstrip, the Dutch forces on Java surrendered on 7 March 1942. Some Dutch soldiers were taken prisoner and interned in labour camps, but some were executed on the spot. Later, all Dutch civilians (some in total), were arrested and interned in camps, and some were deported to Japan or sent to work on the Thai-Burma Railway. During the Japanese occupation, between 4 and 10 million Javanese were forced to work for the Japanese war effort. Some Javanese were taken to other parts of Southeast Asia; only of those survived.

A Dutch government study described how the Japanese military forcibly recruited women as prostitutes in the Dutch East Indies and concluded that among the 200 to 300 European women working in Japanese military brothels, "some sixty five were most certainly comfort women, forced into prostitution". Others, faced with starvation in the refugee camps, agreed to offers of food and payment for work, the nature of which was not completely revealed to them.

The Dutch submarines escaped and resumed the war effort from bases in Australia such as Fremantle, Western Australia, Fremantle. As a part of the Allied forces, they were on the hunt for Japanese tankers on their way to Japan and the movement of Japanese troops and weapons to other sites of battle, including New Guinea campaign, New Guinea. Because of the significant number of Dutch submarines active in the Pacific Theatre of the war, the Dutch were named the "Fourth Ally" in the theatre, along with the Australians, the Americans, and the New Zealanders.

Many Dutch Army and Navy airmen escaped and, with aeroplanes provided by the Americans, formed the Royal Australian Air Force's No. 18 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF, Nos. 18 and No. 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadron RAAF, 120 (Netherlands East Indies) Squadrons, equipped with B-25 Mitchell bombers and Curtiss P-40, P-40 Kittyhawk fighters, respectively. No. 18 Squadron conducted bombing raids from Australia to the Dutch East Indies. Both squadrons eventually also participated in their recapture.

Gradually, control of the Netherlands East Indies was wrested away from the Japanese. The largest Allied invasion of the Pacific Theatre took place in July 1945 with Australian landings on the island of Borneo to seize the strategic oil-fields from the Japanese forces, which were now cut off. At the time, the Japanese had already begun independence negotiations with Indonesian nationalists such as Sukarno, and Indonesian forces had taken control of sizeable portions of Sumatra and Java. After the Japanese Instrument of Surrender, Japanese surrender on 15 August 1945, Indonesian nationalists, led by Sukarno declared Indonesian independence, and a Indonesian National Revolution, four-year armed and diplomatic struggle between the Netherlands and the Indonesian nationalists began.

Dutch civilians, who suffered greatly during their internment, finally returned home to a land that had greatly suffered as well.

Final year

After the Allies of World War II, Allied Normandy Landings, landing in Normandy in June 1944, the Western Allies rapidly advanced in the direction of the Dutch border. Tuesday, 5 September, is known as ''Dolle dinsdag'' ("Mad Tuesday") since the Dutch began celebrating and believed that they were close to liberation. In September, the Allies launched Operation Market Garden, a failed attempt to advance from the Dutch-Belgian border across the rivers Meuse (river), Meuse, Waal (river), Waal and Rhine into the north of the Netherlands and Germany. However, the Allied forces did not reach the objective because they could not capture the Rhine bridge at the Battle of Arnhem. During Market Garden, substantial regions to the south were liberated, including Nijmegen and Eindhoven. A subsequent Battle of the Nijmegen salient, German counterattack against the Nijmegen salient (the Island) was defeated in early October.

Parts of the southern Netherlands were not liberated by Operation Market Garden, which had established a narrow salient between Eindhoven and Nijmegen. In the east of North Brabant and in Limburg (Netherlands), Limburg, British and American forces during Operation Aintree managed to defeat the remaining German forces west of the Meuse between late September and early December 1944 by destroying the German bridgehead between the Meuse and the Peel marshes. During the offensive, the only tank battle ever fought on Dutch soil took place at Overloon.

At the same time, the Allies also advanced into the province of Zeeland. At the start of October 1944, the Germans still occupied Walcheren and dominated the Scheldt estuary and its approaches to the port of Antwerp. The crushing need for a large supply port forced the Battle of the Scheldt in which First Canadian Army fought on both sides of the estuary during the month to clear the waterways. Large battles were fought to clear the Breskens Pocket, Woensdrecht and the Zuid-Beveland Peninsula of German forces, primarily "stomach" units of the ''Wehrmacht'' as well as German paratroopers of Battle Group Chill. German units composed of convalescents and the medically unfit were named for their ailment; thus, "stomach" units for soldiers with ulcers.

By 31 October, resistance south of the Scheldt had collapsed, and the 2nd Canadian Infantry Division, Canadian 2nd Infantry Division, British 52nd (Lowland) Division and 4th Special Service Brigade all made attacks on Walcheren Island. Strong German defences made a landing very difficult, and the Allies responded by bombing the dikes of Walcheren at Westkapelle, Netherlands, Westkapelle, Vlissingen and Veere to flood the island. Though the Allies had warned residents with pamphlets, 180 inhabitants of Westkappelle died. The coastal guns on Walcheren were silenced in the opening days of November and the Scheldt battle declared over. No German forces remained intact along the path to Antwerp.

After the offensive on the Scheldt, Operation Pheasant was launched in conjunction to liberate North Brabant. The offensive after some resistance liberated most of region; the cities of Tilburg, 's-Hertogenbosch, Willemstad, North Brabant, Willemstad and Roosendaal were liberated by British forces. Bergen Op Zoom was taken by the Canadians and the 1st Armoured Division (Poland), Polish 1st Armoured Division led by General Stanisław Maczek, Maczek liberated the city of Breda without any civilian casualties on 29 October 1944. The operation as a whole also broke the German positions that had defended the region along its canals and rivers.

The Dutch government had not wanted to use the old water line when the Germans had invaded in 1940. It was still possible to create an island out of the Holland region by destroying dikes and flooding the polders, which contained the Randstad, main cities. The Dutch government had decided that too many people would die to justify the flooding. However, Hitler ordered for Fortress Holland (German: ''Festung Holland'') to be held at any price. Much of the northern Netherlands remained in German hands until the Rhine crossings in late March 1945.

Hunger Winter

The failure of Operation Market Garden created a wave of refugees from the battlefield—some 100,000 from Arnhem alone—and ensured that the territory still under German control would endure the winter of 1944-45 with virtually no material support. In response to a general railway strike ordered by the Dutch government-in-exile near the end of 1944, the Germans cut off all food and fuel shipments to the western provinces in which 4.5 million people lived.

The winter in Europe was one of the coldest in a hundred years, causing a shortage of water as well as food. The resulting famine is commonly known as the ''Hongerwinter'' (literally, "hunger winter"). Trees began to be chopped down en masse for cooking fires, which caused the Germans to close many public parks. Efforts were made to tow blocks of ice down the rivers into the cities for melting. "Hunger journeys" were common as people roamed the country to scavenge or trade for food. As the end of 1944 approached, supplies had diminished until the only ration cards issued were for one Dutch pound (500 grams) of bread per person per day. Even this was not always attainable, and residents lined up overnight at bakeries in hopes of bread in the morning. By the onset of winter, some three million Dutch residents were facing starvation. The famine ultimately caused up to casualties of starvation, exhaustion, cold, and disease, and people starved to death.

Relief came at the beginning of May 1945.

Bombing of the Bezuidenhout

On 3 March 1945, the British Royal Air Force mistakenly Bombing of the Bezuidenhout, bombed the densely populated Bezuidenhout neighbourhood in the Dutch city of The Hague. The British bomber crews had intended to bomb the Haagse Bos ("Forest of the Hague") district where the Nazi Germany, Germans had installed V-2 launching facilities that had been used to attack English cities. However, the pilots were issued with the wrong coordinates, so the navigational instruments of the bombers had been set incorrectly. Combined with fog and clouds which obscured their vision, the bombs were instead dropped on the Bezuidenhout residential neighbourhood. At the time, the neighbourhood was more densely populated than usual with evacuees from The Hague and Wassenaar; 511 residents were killed and approximately were left homeless.

Liberation

After crossing the Rhine at Operation Plunder, Wesel and Rees, Canadian, British and Polish forces entered the Netherlands from the east and liberated the eastern and the northern provinces. Notable battles during the movement are the Battle of Groningen and the Battle of Otterlo, both in April 1945.

The western provinces were not liberated until the surrender of German forces in the Netherlands was negotiated on the eve of 5 May 1945 (three days before the general capitulation of Germany), in the Hotel de Wereld in Wageningen. Previously the Swedish Red Cross had been allowed to provide relief efforts, and Allied forces were allowed to airdrop food over the German-occupied territories in Operations Manna and Chowhound, Operation Manna.

During Operation Amherst, Allied troops advanced to the North Netherlands. To support the advance of the II Canadian Corps (World War II), II Canadian Corps, France, French paratroopers were dropped in Friesland and Drenthe who were the first Allied troops to reach Friesland. The French successfully captured the crucial Stokersverlaatbrug, Stokersverlaat Bridge. The region was successfully liberated shortly after.

On the island of Texel, nearly 800 men of the Georgian Legion (1941–1945), Georgian Legion, serving in the German army as Ostlegionen, Osttruppen, Georgian Uprising of Texel, rebelled on 5 April 1945. Their rebellion was crushed by the German army after two weeks of battle. 565 Georgians, 120 inhabitants of Texel, and 800 Germans died. The 228 surviving Georgians were forcibly repatriated to the Soviet Union when the war ended.

After being liberated, Dutch citizens began taking the law into their own hands, like in other liberated countries, such as France. Collaborators and Dutch women who had relationships with men of the German occupying force, called ''"Moffenmeiden"'' were abused and humiliated in public, usually by having their heads shaved and painted orange.

Casualties

By the end of the war, 205,901 Dutch men, women and children had died of war-related causes. The Netherlands had the highest per capita death rate of all Nazi-occupied countries in Western Europe (2.36%). Over half () were Holocaust victims. There were also many thousands of non-Dutch Jews in the total, who had fled to the Netherlands from other countries, seeking safety, the most famous being Anne Frank. Another died in the Dutch East Indies, either while fighting the Japanese or in camps as Japanese POWs. Dutch civilians were also held in these camps.

Postwar

After the war, some accused of collaborating with the Germans were lynched or otherwise punished without trial. Men who had fought with the Germans in the ' or ''Waffen-SS'' were used to clear minefields and suffered losses accordingly. Others were sentenced by courts for treason. Some were proven to have been wrongly arrested and were cleared of charges, sometimes after they had been held in custody for a long period of time.

The Dutch government initially developed plans to annex part of Germany (Dutch annexation of German territory after the Second World War, the Bakker-Schut Plan), which would substantially increase the country's land area. The German population would be expelled or "Dutchified". The plan was dropped after an Allied refusal. Two small villages were added to the Netherlands in 1949 and returned in 1963. One successfully-implemented plan was Operation Black Tulip, the deportation of all holders of German passports from the Netherlands, numbering several thousand.

The bank balances of Dutch Jews who were killed were still the subject of legal proceedings more than 70 years after the end of the war.

The end of the war also meant the final loss of the Dutch East Indies. After the surrender of the Japanese in the Dutch East Indies, Indonesian nationalists fought a Indonesian National Revolution, four-year war of independence against Dutch and at first United Kingdom, British Commonwealth of Nations, Commonwealth forces, which eventually led to the Dutch recognition of the independence of Indonesia under pressure of the United States. Many Dutch and Indonesians then emigrated or returned to the Netherlands.

World War II left many lasting effects on Dutch society. On 4 May, the Dutch commemorate those who died during the war, and all wars since. Among the living, there are many who still bear the emotional scars of the war from both the first and the second generation. In 2000, the government was still granting people an annual compensatory payment although that also includes victims from later wars, such as the Korean War.

In 2017, the Dutch Red Cross offered its "deep apologies" for its failure to act to protect Jews, Sinti, Romani people, Roma, and political prisoners during the war after the publication of a study that it had commissioned from the NIOD Institute for War, Holocaust and Genocide Studies.

See also

* Netherlands in World War I
* Chronological overview of the liberation of Dutch cities and towns during World War II
* Dutch resistance
* Englandspiel
* List of Dutch military equipment of World War II
* Military history of the Netherlands during World War II
* Corrie ten Boom
* Jan de Hartog
* Philip Slier
* Maurice Frankenhuis
* Canada-Netherlands relations
* Liberation Day (Netherlands)
* Suicide in the Netherlands in World War II

References

Sources

*

Further reading

* Bijvoet, Tom and Van Arragon Hutten, Anne. ''The Dutch in Wartime, Survivors Remember'' (Mokeham Publishing, Oakville, Ontario 2011–2017
The Dutch in Wartime
*
* De Zwarte, Ingrid. ''The Hunger Winter: Fighting Famine in the Occupied Netherlands, 1944–1945'' (Cambridge University Press, 2020
online

* Dewulf, Jeroen. ''Spirit of Resistance: Dutch Clandestine Literature during the Nazi Occupation'' (Rochester NY: Camden House 2010)
* Diederichs, Monika. "Stigma and Silence: Dutch Women, German Soldiers and their children", in Kjersti Ericsson and Eva Simonsen, eds. ''Children of World War II: The Hidden Enemy Legacy'' (Oxford U.P. 2005), 151–64.
* Foot, Michael, ed. ''Holland at war against Hitler: Anglo-Dutch relations 1940–1945'' (1990
excerpt and text search
* Foray, Jennifer L. "The 'Clean Wehrmacht' in the German-occupied Netherlands, 1940–5," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' 2010 45:768–787
* Friedhoff, Herman. ''Requiem for the Resistance: The Civilian Struggle Against Nazism in Holland and Germany'' (1989)
* Goddard, Lance. ''Canada and the liberation of the Netherlands, May 1945'' (2005)
* Gerhard Hirschfeld, Hirschfeld, Gerhard. ''Nazi Rule and Dutch Collaboration: The Netherlands under German Occupation 1940–1945'' (Oxford U.P., 1998)
* Hirschfeld, Gerhard. "Collaboration and Attentism in the Netherlands 1940–41," ''Journal of Contemporary History'' (1981) 16#3, pp. 467–486. Focus on the "Netherlands Union" active in 1940–4
in JSTOR
* Hitchcock, William I. ''The Bitter Road to Freedom: The Human Cost of Allied Victory in World War II Europe'' (2009). Chapter 3 is "Hunger: The Netherlands and the Politics of Food", pp. 98–129
* Maas, Walter B. ''The Netherlands at war: 1940–1945'' (1970)
*
* Moore, Bob. "Occupation, Collaboration and Resistance: Some Recent Publications on the Netherlands During the Second World War", ''European History Quarterly'' (1991) 211, pp. 109–118
Online at Sage
* Sellin, Thorsten, ed. "The Netherlands during German Occupation", ''Annals of the American Academy of Political and Social Science'' Vol. 245, May 1946, pp. i–18
in JSTOR
18 essays by experts; focus on home front economics, society, Resistance, Jews
* van der Zee, Henri A. ''The hunger winter: occupied Holland, 1944–1945'' (University of Nebraska Press, 1998
excerpt and text search
* Warmbrunn, Werner. ''The Dutch under German Occupation 1940–1945'' (Stanford University Press, 1963)
* Zuehlke, Mark. ''On to Victory: The Canadian Liberation of the Netherlands, March 23 – May 5, 1945'' (D & M Publishers, 2010.)

External links

The liberation of the Netherlands with photos and video footage.


*
* [http://www.waroverholland.nl The invasion of the Netherlands in 1940]

Dutch Resistance Museum



Beeldbankwo2 (Photobank WWII)
a project led by the Dutch National Archives

De Oorlog – A NPS Documentary series about World War II and the Netherlands

The Dutch in Wartime, survivors remember – Dutch immigrants to Canada and the USA share their memories of war and occupation

Liberation of the Netherlands

{{DEFAULTSORT:History of the Netherlands (1939-1945)
Netherlands in World War II,
Jewish Dutch history
Politics of World War II
World War II occupied territories, Netherlands