Henry VI, Part II
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''Henry VI, Part 2'' (1591) is a
Shakespearean history In the First Folio (1623), the plays of William Shakespeare were in three categories: (i) comedies, (ii) histories, and (iii) tragedies. Besides the history plays of his Renaissance playwright contemporaries, the histories of Shakespeare def ...
play about King
Henry VI of England Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and 1470 to 1471, and English claims to the French throne, disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V of England, Henry V, he succeeded ...
's inability to quell the bickering of his noblemen, the death of his trusted advisor
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 1390 – 23 February 1447) was an English prince, soldier and literary patron. He was (as he styled himself) "son, brother and uncle of kings", being the fourth and youngest son of Henry IV ...
, and the political rise of
Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (21 September 1411 – 30 December 1460), also named Richard Plantagenet, was a leading English magnate and claimant to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. He was a member of the ruling House of Plantag ...
; it culminates with the
First Battle of St Albans The First Battle of St Albans took place on 22 May, 1455, at St Albans, 22 miles (35 km) north of London, and traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England. Richard, Duke of York, and his allies, the Neville Earls ...
(1455), the initial battle of the
Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses, known at the time and in following centuries as the Civil Wars, were a series of armed confrontations, machinations, battles and campaigns fought over control of the English throne from 1455 to 1487. The conflict was fo ...
, which were civil wars between the
House of Lancaster The House of Lancaster was a cadet branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. The first house was created when King Henry III of England created the Earldom of Lancasterfrom which the house was namedfor his second son Edmund Crouchback in 1267 ...
and the
House of York The House of York was a cadet branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet. Three of its members became kings of England in the late 15th century. The House of York descended in the male line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York ...
. In the early historical narrative of ''
Henry VI, Part 1 ''Henry VI, Part 1'', often referred to as ''1 Henry VI'', is a Shakespearean history, history play by William Shakespeare—possibly in collaboration with Thomas Nashe and others—believed to have been written in 1591. It is set during the ...
'' (1591) Shakespeare dealt with the low morale consequent to the loss of England's French territories (1429–1453) during the
Hundred Years' War The Hundred Years' War (; 1337–1453) was a conflict between the kingdoms of Kingdom of England, England and Kingdom of France, France and a civil war in France during the Late Middle Ages. It emerged from feudal disputes over the Duchy ...
(1337–1453) and the political machinations that precipitated the
Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses, known at the time and in following centuries as the Civil Wars, were a series of armed confrontations, machinations, battles and campaigns fought over control of the English throne from 1455 to 1487. The conflict was fo ...
(1455–1487). In the concluding history of ''
Henry VI, Part 3 ''Henry VI, Part 3'' (often written as ''3 Henry VI'') is a Shakespearean history, history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written in 1591 and set during the lifetime of King Henry VI of England. Whereas ''Henry VI, Part 1, ...
'' (1591), the English playwright
William Shakespeare William Shakespeare ( 23 April 1564 – 23 April 1616) was an English playwright, poet and actor. He is widely regarded as the greatest writer in the English language and the world's pre-eminent dramatist. He is often called England's nation ...
deals with the fraternal horrors of
civil war A civil war is a war between organized groups within the same Sovereign state, state (or country). The aim of one side may be to take control of the country or a region, to achieve independence for a region, or to change government policies.J ...
amongst Englishmen. In English literature, '' The Tragedy of Richard III'' (1594) is included to the trilogy of stageplays about King Henry VI into an informal tetralogy of
history play History is one of the three main genres in Western theatre alongside tragedy and comedy, although it originated, in its modern form, thousands of years later than the other primary genres. For this reason, it is often treated as a subset of trage ...
s about the family sagas that motivated the Wars of the Roses for control of the
throne of England The Throne of England is the throne of the Monarch of England. "Throne of England" also refers metonymically to the office of monarch, and monarchy itself.Gordon, Delahay. (1760) ''A General History of the Lives, Trials, and Executions of All t ...
. Shakespeare's historical narrative begins with the death of
Henry V of England Henry V (16 September 1386 – 31 August 1422), also called Henry of Monmouth, was King of England from 1413 until his death in 1422. Despite his relatively short reign, Henry's outstanding military successes in the Hundred Years' War against ...
in 1422 and continues for sixty-three years to the ascent of
Henry VII of England Henry VII (28 January 1457 – 21 April 1509), also known as Henry Tudor, was King of England and Lord of Ireland from his seizure of the crown on 22 August 1485 until his death in 1509. He was the first monarch of the House of Tudor. Henr ...
in 1485.


Characters

''Of the King's Party'' *
King Henry VI Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and 1470 to 1471, and disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V, he succeeded to the English throne at the age of eight months, upon ...
– King of England * Queen Margaret – Queen to Henry VI *
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 1390 – 23 February 1447) was an English prince, soldier and literary patron. He was (as he styled himself) "son, brother and uncle of kings", being the fourth and youngest son of Henry IV ...
– Henry VI's uncle and
Lord Protector Lord Protector (plural: ''Lords Protector'') is a title that has been used in British constitutional law for the head of state. It was also a particular title for the British heads of state in respect to the established church. It was sometime ...
of England *
Eleanor, Duchess of Gloucester Eleanor Cobham (c.1400 – 7 July 1452) was an English noblewoman, first the mistress and then the second wife of Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester. In 1441 she was forcibly divorced and sentenced to life imprisonment for treasonable necromancy, a ...
– Gloucester's wife *
Cardinal Beaufort Henry Beaufort (c. 1375 – 11 April 1447) was an English Catholic prelate and statesman who held the offices of Bishop of Lincoln (1398), Bishop of Winchester (1404) and cardinal (1426). He served three times as Lord Chancellor and played an ...
– Bishop of Winchester, Henry VI's great-uncle * William de la Pole – Marquis, later Duke, of Suffolk; lover of Queen Margaret *
Duke of Buckingham Duke of Buckingham, referring to the market town of Buckingham, England, is an extinct title that has been created several times in the peerages of England, Great Britain, and the United Kingdom. There were creations of double dukedoms of Bucki ...
– Henry VI's second cousin once removed * Duke of Somerset – Henry VI's first cousin once removed * Lord Clifford – military commander * Young Clifford – Lord Clifford's son ''Of the Duke of York's Party'' *
Richard Plantagenet, 3rd Duke of York Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (21 September 1411 – 30 December 1460), also named Richard Plantagenet, was a leading English magnate and claimant to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. He was a member of the ruling House of Plantag ...
– Henry VI's second cousin one removed, asserts he should be king * Edward, Earl of March – Richard's son * Richard Plantagenet – Richard's son *
Earl of Salisbury Earl of Salisbury is a title that has been created several times in English and British history. It has a complex history and is now a subsidiary title to the marquessate of Salisbury. Background The title was first created for Patrick de Sa ...
– Richard's brother-in-law *
Earl of Warwick Earl of Warwick is a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom which has been created four times in English history. The name refers to Warwick Castle and the town of Warwick. Overview The first creation came in 1088, and the title was held b ...
– Salisbury's son ''The Petitions and the Combat'' * Thomas Horner – armourer * Peter Thump – his apprentice * Petitioners, Prentices, Neighbours ''The Conjuration'' * John Hum – priest * John Southwell – priest * Margery Jourdayne – witch *
Roger Bolingbroke Roger Bolingbroke (died 18 November 1441) was a 15th-century English cleric, astronomer, astrologer, magister and alleged necromancer. He flourished in the first half of the 15th century. He was tried, convicted and executed for treasonable witchc ...
– conjurer * Asmath – a spirit ''The False Miracle'' * Sander Simpcox – impostor * Simpcox's wife * Mayor of
St Albans St Albans () is a cathedral city in Hertfordshire, England, east of Hemel Hempstead and west of Hatfield, Hertfordshire, Hatfield, north-west of London, south-west of Welwyn Garden City and south-east of Luton. St Albans was the first major ...
*
Alderman An alderman is a member of a Municipal government, municipal assembly or council in many jurisdictions founded upon English law with similar officials existing in the Netherlands (wethouder) and Belgium (schepen). The term may be titular, denotin ...
of St Albans * A
beadle A beadle, sometimes spelled bedel, is an official who may usher, keep order, make reports, and assist in religious functions; or a minor official who carries out various civil, educational or ceremonial duties on the manor. The term has pre- ...
of St Albans ''Eleanor's Penance'' *
Sheriff of London Two Sheriffs of the City of London are elected annually by the members of the City livery companies. Today's Sheriffs have only ceremonial duties, but the historical officeholders held important judicial responsibilities. They have attended the ...
* Sir John Stanley –
Governor of the Isle of Man A governor is an administrative leader and head of a polity or political region, in some cases, such as governors-general, as the head of a state's official representative. Depending on the type of political region or polity, a ''governor'' ma ...
(historically Sir Thomas Stanley) * Gloucester's Servants * Herald ''Murder of Gloucester'' * Two Murderers ''Murder of Suffolk'' * Lieutenant – commander of a ship * Master of the Ship *
Master's Mate Master's mate is an obsolete rating which was used by the British Royal Navy, Royal Navy, United States Navy and merchant services in both countries for a senior petty officer who assisted the sailing master, master. Master's mates evolved into th ...
* Walter Whitmore – sailor on ship * Two Gentlemen – prisoners with Suffolk ''The Cade Rebellion'' *
Jack Cade Jack Cade's Rebellion or Cade's Rebellion was a popular revolt in 1450 against the government of England, which took place in the south-east of the country between the months of April and July. It stemmed from local grievances regarding the ...
– rebel leader * Dick the Butcher – rebel * Smith the
Weaver Weaver or Weavers may refer to: Activities * A person who engages in weaving fabric Animals * Various birds of the family Ploceidae * Crevice weaver spider family * Orb-weaver spider family * Weever (or weever-fish) Arts and entertainmen ...
– rebel * George Bevis – rebel * John Holland – rebel * John – rebel * Emmanuel –
Clerk A clerk is a white-collar worker who conducts record keeping as well as general office tasks, or a worker who performs similar sales-related tasks in a retail environment. The responsibilities of clerical workers commonly include Records managem ...
of Chatham * Sir Humphrey Stafford – military commander * William Stafford – Sir Humphrey's brother * Lord Saye
Lord High Treasurer The Lord High Treasurer was an English government position and has been a British government position since the Acts of Union of 1707. A holder of the post would be the third-highest-ranked Great Officer of State in England, below the Lord H ...
* Lord Scales – defends the
Tower of London The Tower of London, officially His Majesty's Royal Palace and Fortress of the Tower of London, is a historic citadel and castle on the north bank of the River Thames in central London, England. It lies within the London Borough of Tower Hamle ...
* Matthew Gough – King's soldier stationed at the Tower (non-speaking role) * Alexander Iden – Kentish Gentleman ''Others'' * Vaux – messenger * Messengers, soldiers, guards, servants, commons, rebels, etc.


Synopsis

The play begins with the marriage of King
Henry VI of England Henry VI (6 December 1421 – 21 May 1471) was King of England from 1422 to 1461 and 1470 to 1471, and English claims to the French throne, disputed King of France from 1422 to 1453. The only child of Henry V of England, Henry V, he succeeded ...
to the young
Margaret of Anjou Margaret of Anjou (; 23 March 1430 – 25 August 1482) was Queen of England by marriage to King Henry VI from 1445 to 1461 and again from 1470 to 1471. Through marriage, she was also nominally Queen of France from 1445 to 1453. Born in the ...
. Margaret is the protégée and lover of William de la Pole, 4th Earl of Suffolk, who aims to influence the king through her. The major obstacle to Suffolk and Margaret's plan is the Lord Protector;
Humphrey, Duke of Gloucester Humphrey of Lancaster, Duke of Gloucester (3 October 1390 – 23 February 1447) was an English prince, soldier and literary patron. He was (as he styled himself) "son, brother and uncle of kings", being the fourth and youngest son of Henry IV ...
, who is extremely popular with the common people and deeply trusted by the King. Gloucester's wife, however, has designs on the
throne A throne is the seat of state of a potentate or dignitary, especially the seat occupied by a sovereign (or viceroy A viceroy () is an official who reigns over a polity in the name of and as the representative of the monarch of the territory ...
, and has been led by an agent of Suffolk to dabble in
necromancy Necromancy () is the practice of Magic (paranormal), magic involving communication with the Death, dead by Evocation, summoning their spirits as Ghost, apparitions or Vision (spirituality), visions for the purpose of divination; imparting the ...
. She summons a spirit and demands it reveal the future to her, but its prophecies are vague and before the ritual is finished, she is interrupted and arrested. At court she is then banished, greatly to the embarrassment of Gloucester. Suffolk then conspires with
Cardinal Beaufort Henry Beaufort (c. 1375 – 11 April 1447) was an English Catholic prelate and statesman who held the offices of Bishop of Lincoln (1398), Bishop of Winchester (1404) and cardinal (1426). He served three times as Lord Chancellor and played an ...
and the Duke of
Somerset Somerset ( , ), Archaism, archaically Somersetshire ( , , ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in South West England. It is bordered by the Bristol Channel, Gloucestershire, and Bristol to the north, Wiltshire to the east ...
to bring about Gloucester's ruin. Suffolk accuses Gloucester of treason and has him imprisoned, but before Gloucester can be tried, Suffolk sends two assassins to kill him. Meanwhile,
Richard, 3rd Duke of York Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York (21 September 1411 – 30 December 1460), also named Richard Plantagenet, was a leading English magnate and claimant to the throne during the Wars of the Roses. He was a member of the ruling House of Plantage ...
, reveals his claim to the throne to the Earls of
Salisbury Salisbury ( , ) is a city status in the United Kingdom, cathedral city and civil parish in Wiltshire, England with a population of 41,820, at the confluence of the rivers River Avon, Hampshire, Avon, River Nadder, Nadder and River Bourne, Wi ...
and
Warwick Warwick ( ) is a market town, civil parish and the county town of Warwickshire in the Warwick District in England, adjacent to the River Avon, Warwickshire, River Avon. It is south of Coventry, and south-east of Birmingham. It is adjoined wit ...
, who pledge to support him. Suffolk is banished for his role in Gloucester's death, whilst Winchester (Cardinal Beaufort) contracts a fever and dies, cursing God. Margaret, horrified at Suffolk's banishment, vows to ensure his return, but he is killed by
pirates Piracy is an act of robbery or criminal violence by ship or boat-borne attackers upon another ship or a coastal area, typically with the goal of stealing cargo and valuable goods, or taking hostages. Those who conduct acts of piracy are call ...
shortly after leaving England, and his head sent back to the distraught Margaret. Meanwhile, York has been appointed commander of an army to suppress a revolt in Ireland. Before leaving, he enlists a former officer of his, Jack Cade, to stage a popular revolt in order to ascertain whether the common people would support York should he make an open move for power. At first, the rebellion is successful, and Cade sets himself up as
Mayor of London The mayor of London is the chief executive of the Greater London Authority. The role was created in 2000 after the Greater London devolution referendum in 1998, and was the first directly elected mayor in the United Kingdom. The current ...
, but his rebellion is put down when Lord Clifford (a supporter of Henry) persuades the common people, who make up Cade's army, to abandon the cause. Cade is killed several days later by Alexander Iden, a Kentish gentleman, into whose garden he climbs looking for food. York returns to England with his army, claiming that he intends to protect the King from the duplicitous Somerset. York vows to disband his forces if Somerset is arrested and charged with treason. Buckingham swears that Somerset is already a prisoner in the tower, but when Somerset enters ("at liberty"), accompanied by the Queen, York holds Buckingham's vow broken, and announces his claim to the throne, supported by his sons, Edward and Richard. The English nobility take sides, some supporting the
House of York The House of York was a cadet branch of the English royal House of Plantagenet. Three of its members became kings of England in the late 15th century. The House of York descended in the male line from Edmund of Langley, 1st Duke of York ...
, others supporting Henry and the
House of Lancaster The House of Lancaster was a cadet branch of the royal House of Plantagenet. The first house was created when King Henry III of England created the Earldom of Lancasterfrom which the house was namedfor his second son Edmund Crouchback in 1267 ...
. A battle is fought at St Albans in which the Duke of Somerset is killed by York's son Richard, and Lord Clifford by York. With the battle lost, Margaret persuades the distraught King to flee the battlefield and head to London. She is joined by Young Clifford, who vows revenge on the Yorkists for the death of his father. The play ends with York, Edward, Richard, Warwick and Salisbury setting out in pursuit of Henry, Margaret and Clifford.


Sources

Shakespeare's primary source for ''2 Henry VI'' was
Edward Hall Edward Hall ( – ) was an English lawyer and historian, best known for his #Chronicle, ''The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancastre and Yorke''—commonly known as ''Hall's Chronicle''—first published in 1548. He was ...
's ''The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York'' (1548). He also drew upon the second edition of
Raphael Holinshed Raphael Holinshed (; before 24 April 1582) was an English chronicler, who was most famous for his work on ''The Chronicles of England, Scotlande, and Irelande'', commonly known as ''Holinshed's Chronicles''. It was the "first complete printed h ...
's ''
Chronicles Chronicles may refer to: * Books of Chronicles in the Bible * Chronicle, chronological histories * ''The Chronicles of Narnia'', a novel series by C. S. Lewis * ''The Chronicles of Prydain'', a novel series by Lloyd Alexander. * ''Holinshed's Chro ...
'' (1587). Although Holinshed's treatment of the Wars of the Roses is derived in large part from Hall's work, even to the point of reproducing large portions of it verbatim, there are enough differences between Hall and Holinshed to establish that Shakespeare must have consulted both of them. For example, the marked contrast between Henry and Margaret, a recurring theme in the play, comes from Hall, who presents Henry as a "saint-like" victim of circumstances, and Margaret as a cunning and manipulative egotist. Shakespeare must have used Hall to establish York's claim to the throne (outlined in 2.2), as the corresponding section in Holinshed adds an extra generation to York's lineage. However, the meeting between Buckingham and York before the Battle of St Albans (dramatised in 5.1) is found only in Holinshed.Warren (2000: 30) Only Holinshed contains information about the
Peasants' Revolt The Peasants' Revolt, also named Wat Tyler's Rebellion or the Great Rising, was a major uprising across large parts of England in 1381. The revolt had various causes, including the socio-economic and political tensions generated by the Black ...
of 1381, which Shakespeare used for the scenes of Cade's rebellion throughout Act 4 (for example, details such as having people killed because they could read, and promises of setting up a state with no money). The Peasants' Revolt of 1381 was highly anti-intellectual and anti-textual as well, an aspect that Shakespeare used to characterize his version of Cade's Rebellion (while in reality, Cade's Rebellion was one of the first popular uprisings in England that used writing to voice their grievances). The presentation of Henry's reaction to the rebellion also differs in Hall and Holinshed. In Hall, Henry pardons everyone who surrenders and lets them all return home unpunished, and this is how Shakespeare presents it in the play. In Holinshed, by contrast, Henry convenes a court and has several of the leaders executed (as he did in reality). Another historical parallel found in Holinshed is that Henry is presented as unstable, constantly on the brink of madness, something which is not in Hall, who presents a gentle but ineffective King (again, Shakespeare follows Hall here). Shakespeare's largest departure from Hall and Holinshed is in his conflation of the Cade rebellion, York's return from Ireland and the Battle of St Albans into one continuous sequence. Both Hall and Holinshed present these events as covering a four-year period (as they did in reality), but in the play they are presented as one leading directly, and immediately, to the other. This is how the events are depicted in
Robert Fabyan Robert Fabyan (died 1512) was a London draper, Sheriff and Alderman, and author of ''Fabyan's Chronicle''. Family Robert Fabyan was the son of John Fabyan and his wife, Agnes. He is said to have been born in London. He had a brother, John. His ...
's '' New Chronicles of England and France'' (1516), suggesting that this too may have been a source. Another definite source for Shakespeare was
Richard Grafton Richard Grafton (c. 1506/7 or 1511 – 1573) was King's Printer under Henry VIII and Edward VI. He was a member of the Grocers' Company and MP for Coventry elected 1562/63. Under Henry VIII With Edward Whitchurch, a member of the Haberdash ...
's '' A Chronicle at Large'' (1569). Like Holinshed, Grafton reproduces large passages of unedited material from Hall, but some sections are exclusive to Grafton, showing Shakespeare must also have consulted him. The false miracle for example (dramatised in 2.1) is found only in Grafton, not in Hall or Holinshed (although a similar scene is also outlined in
John Foxe John Foxe (1516/1517 – 18 April 1587) was an English clergyman, theologian, and historian, notable for his martyrology '' Foxe's Book of Martyrs'', telling of Christian martyrs throughout Western history, but particularly the sufferings of En ...
's '' Acts and Monuments, Book of Martyrs'' (1563), with which Shakespeare may have been familiar).


Date and text


Date

On 12 March 1594, a play was entered in the
Stationers' Register The Stationers' Register was a record book maintained by the Stationers' Company of London. This was a trade guild given a royal charter in 1557 to regulate the various professions associated with England's publishing industry, including prin ...
by the bookseller Thomas Millington and printed in
quarto Quarto (abbreviated Qto, 4to or 4º) is the format of a book or pamphlet produced from full sheets printed with eight pages of text, four to a side, then folded twice to produce four leaves. The leaves are then trimmed along the folds to produc ...
by Thomas Creede later that year as ''The First part of the Contention betwixt the two famous Houses of Yorke and Lancaster, with the death of the good Duke Humphrey: And the banishment and death of the Duke of Suffolke, and the Tragicall end of the proud Cardinall of VVinchester, vvith the notable Rebellion of Jacke Cade: And the Duke of Yorkes first claime vnto the Crowne''. It has been theorised that ''The Contention'' is a reported text of a performance of what is today called ''Henry VI, Part II''. If so, the play was written no later than 1594. However, it has been suggested the play may have been written several years earlier. Robert Greene's pamphlet ''
Greene's Groats-Worth of Wit ''Greenes, Groats-worth of Witte, bought with a million of Repentance'' (1592) is a tract published as the work of the Elizabethan author Robert Greene. It was published as a short book or pamphlet, a form that was popular and which contribu ...
'' (entered in the Stationers' Register on 20 September 1592) mocks Shakespeare as "an upstart crow, beautified with our feathers, that with his 'tiger's heart wrapped in a player's hide', supposes that he is as well able to bombast out a blank verse as the best of you." This parody of ''3 Henry VI'', 1.4.138, where York refers to Margaret as a "tiger's heart wrapped in a woman's hide!", proves that ''3 Henry VI'' was well known by September 1592, which means it must have been staged before 23 June, when the government closed the theatres to prevent the spread of plague. As it is known for certain that ''3 Henry VI'' was a sequel to ''2 Henry VI'', it is certain that if ''3 Henry VI'' was on stage by June 1592, so too was ''2 Henry VI'' and that both were probably written in 1591 or 1592. For a discussion of whether the three parts of the trilogy were composed in chronological order, see '' 1 Henry VI''.


Text

The 1594 quarto text of ''The Contention'' was reprinted twice, in 1600 (in quarto) and 1619 (also in quarto). The 1600 text was printed by
Valentine Simmes Valentine Simmes ( 1585 – 1622) was an English printer of the Elizabethan and Jacobean eras. He did business in London, "on Adling Hill near Bainard's Castle at the sign of the White Swan." Simmes has a reputation as one of the better printers ...
for Millington. The 1619 text was part of
William Jaggard William Jaggard ( – November 1623) was an Elizabethan era, Elizabethan and Jacobean era, Jacobean printer and publisher, best known for his connection with the texts of William Shakespeare, most notably the First Folio of Shakespeare's pl ...
's
False Folio False Folio is the term that Shakespeare scholars and bibliographers have applied to William Jaggard's printing of ten Shakespearean and pseudo-Shakespearean plays together in 1619, the first attempt to collect Shakespeare's work in a single v ...
, which was printed for
Thomas Pavier Thomas Pavier (died 1625) was a London publisher and bookseller of the early seventeenth century. His complex involvement in the publication of early editions of some of Shakespeare's plays, as well as plays of the Shakespeare Apocrypha, has l ...
. This text was printed together with a version of ''3 Henry VI'' which had been printed in
octavo Octavo, a Latin word meaning "in eighth" or "for the eighth time", (abbreviated 8vo, 8º, or In-8) is a technical term describing the format of a book, which refers to the size of leaves produced from folding a full sheet of paper on which multip ...
in 1595 under the title ''The True Tragedie of Richard Duke of Yorke, and the death of good King Henrie the Sixt, with the Whole Contention betweene the two Houses, Lancaster and Yorke''. In the False Folio, the two plays were grouped under the general title ''The Whole Contention betweene the Two Famous Houses, Lancaster and Yorke, With the Tragicall ends of the good Duke Humfrey, Richard Duke of Yorke, and King Henrie the sixt''. Also printed with ''The Whole Contention'' was ''
Pericles, Prince of Tyre ''Pericles, Prince of Tyre'' is a Jacobean play written at least in part by William Shakespeare and included in modern editions of his collected works despite questions over its authorship, as it was not included in the First Folio. It was p ...
''. The 1619 text of ''2 Henry VI'' was not directly taken from ''The Contention'', however. The original text was edited to correct an error in York's outline of his genealogy in 2.2. The text of the play that today forms ''2 Henry VI'' was not published until the 1623 ''First Folio'', under the title ''The second Part of Henry the Sixt, with the death of the Good Duke Humfrey''. When the play came to be called ''Part 2'' is unclear, although most critics tend to assume it was the invention of
John Heminges John Heminges (bapt. 25 November 1566 – 10 October 1630) was an English actor in the King's Men, the playing company for which William Shakespeare wrote. Along with Henry Condell, he was an editor of the First Folio, the collected plays of Sha ...
and
Henry Condell Henry Condell ( bapt. 5 September 1576 – December 1627) was a British actor in the King's Men, the playing company for which William Shakespeare wrote. With John Heminges, he was instrumental in preparing and editing the First Folio, the c ...
, the editors of the ''First Folio'', as there are no references to the play under the title ''Part 2'', or any derivative thereof, before 1623.


Analysis and criticism


Critical history

Some critics argue that the ''Henry VI'' trilogy was the first ever plays to be based on recent English history, and as such, they deserve an elevated position in the
canon Canon or Canons may refer to: Arts and entertainment * Canon (fiction), the material accepted as officially written by an author or an ascribed author * Literary canon, an accepted body of works considered as high culture ** Western canon, th ...
and a more central role in Shakespearean criticism. According to F. P. Wilson, "There is no certain evidence that any dramatist before the defeat of the
Spanish Armada The Spanish Armada (often known as Invincible Armada, or the Enterprise of England, ) was a Spanish fleet that sailed from Lisbon in late May 1588, commanded by Alonso de Guzmán, Duke of Medina Sidonia, an aristocrat without previous naval ...
in 1588 dared to put upon the public stage a play based upon English history .. so thatso far as we know, Shakespeare was the first." Michael Taylor, however, argues that there were at least thirty-nine history plays prior to 1592, including the two-part
Christopher Marlowe Christopher Marlowe ( ; Baptism, baptised 26 February 156430 May 1593), also known as Kit Marlowe, was an English playwright, poet, and translator of the Elizabethan era. Marlowe is among the most famous of the English Renaissance theatre, Eli ...
play ''
Tamburlaine ''Tamburlaine the Great'' is a play in two parts by Christopher Marlowe. It is loosely based on the life of the Central Asian emperor Timur (Tamerlane/Timur the Lame, d. 1405). Written in 1587 or 1588, the play is a milestone in English liter ...
'' (1587),
Thomas Lodge Thomas Lodge (September 1625) was an English writer and medical practitioner whose life spanned the Elizabethan and Jacobean periods. Biography Early life Thomas Lodge was born about 1557 in West Ham, the second son of Sir Thomas Lodge ...
's '' The Wounds of Civil War'' (1588),
George Peele George Peele (baptised 25 July 1556 – buried 9 November 1596) was an English translator, poet, and dramatist, who is most noted for his supposed, but not universally accepted, collaboration with William Shakespeare on the play ''Titus Andronic ...
's ''
The Troublesome Reign of King John ''The Troublesome Reign of John, King of England'', commonly called ''The Troublesome Reign of King John'' (c. 1589) is an English literature#Elizabethan era, Elizabethan history play, probably by George Peele, that is generally accepted by sch ...
'' (1588), the anonymous ''
Edmund Ironside Edmund Ironside (30 November 1016; , , ; sometimes also known as Edmund II) was King of the English from 23 April to 30 November 1016. He was the son of King Æthelred the Unready and his first wife, Ælfgifu of York. Edmund's reign was marre ...
'' (1590),
Robert Green Robert Paul Green (born 18 January 1980) is an English former professional footballer who played as a goalkeeper. He played in the Premier League and Football League and for the England national team. Green made his first-team debut for Norwi ...
, and Thomas Lodge's ''
Selimus ''Selimus'' is a monotypic genus Genus (; : genera ) is a taxonomic rank above species and below family (taxonomy), family as used in the biological classification of extant taxon, living and fossil organisms as well as Virus classification#I ...
'' (1591), and another anonymous play, '' The True Tragedy of Richard III'' (1591). Paola Pugliatti attempts a synthesis, arguing, "Shakespeare may not have been the first to bring English history before the audience of a public playhouse, but he was certainly the first to treat it in the manner of a mature historian rather than in the manner of a worshipper of historical, political and religious myth." In any case, there is much more critical disagreement about the play, not the least of which concerns its relationship to ''The Contention''.


''The Contention'' as reported text

Over the years, critics have debated the connection between ''2 Henry VI'' and ''The Contention'', to the point where four main theories have emerged: # ''The Contention'' is a reconstructed version of a performance of what we today call ''2 Henry VI''; i.e. a
bad quarto A bad quarto, in Shakespearean scholarship, is a quarto-sized printed edition of one of Shakespeare's plays that is considered to be unauthorised, and is theorised to have been pirated from a theatrical performance without permission by someone ...
, an attempt by actors to reconstruct the original play from memory and sell it. Originated by
Samuel Johnson Samuel Johnson ( – 13 December 1784), often called Dr Johnson, was an English writer who made lasting contributions as a poet, playwright, essayist, moralist, literary critic, sermonist, biographer, editor, and lexicographer. The ''Oxford ...
in 1765 and refined by
Peter Alexander Peter Alexander may refer to: * Pete Alexander (born Grover Cleveland Alexander; 1887–1950), American baseball player * Peter Alexander (Shakespearean scholar) (1893–1969), professor of English language and literature at the University of Glasgo ...
in 1929. Traditionally, this is the most accepted theory. # ''The Contention'' is an early draft of the play that was published in the 1623 Folio under the title ''The second Part of Henry the Sixt''. Originated by
Edmond Malone Edmond Malone (4 October 174125 May 1812) was an Irish barrister, Shakespearean scholar and Literary editor, editor of the works of William Shakespeare. Assured of an income after the death of his father in 1774, Malone was able to give up his ...
in 1790 as an alternate to Johnson's memorial report theory. Supported today by critics such as Steven Urkowitz. # ''The Contention'' is ''both'' a reported text ''and'' an early draft of ''2 Henry VI''. This theory has been gaining increasing support from the latter half of the 20th century, and is championed by many modern editors of the play. # Shakespeare did not write ''The Contention'' at all; it was an
anonymous Anonymous may refer to: * Anonymity, the state of an individual's identity, or personally identifiable information, being publicly unknown ** Anonymous work, a work of art or literature that has an unnamed or unknown creator or author * Anonym ...
play which he used as the basis for ''2 Henry VI''. Originated by
Georg Gottfried Gervinus Georg Gottfried Gervinus (20 May 1805 – 18 March 1871) was a German literary and political historian. Biography Gervinus was born in Darmstadt. He was educated at the gymnasium of the town, and intended for a commercial career, but in 1825 he b ...
in 1849, this theory remained popular throughout the nineteenth century, with Robert Greene the leading candidate as a possible author. It has fallen out of favour in the twentieth century. Traditionally, critical opinion has tended to favour the first theory; that ''The Contention'' is a bad quarto, a memorial reconstruction, perhaps by the actor who had played Suffolk and/or Cade in early performance. Samuel Johnson put forth this theory in 1765, but was challenged by Edmond Malone in 1790, who suggested that ''The Contention'' could be an early draft of ''2 Henry VI''. Malone's view was the dominant one until 1929, when Peter Alexander and
Madeleine Doran Madeleine Kathryn Doran (August 12, 1905 – October 19, 1996) was an American literary critic and poet who taught at the University of Wisconsin–Madison from 1935 until her retirement in 1975. Born in Salt Lake City, Utah, Doran graduated from S ...
, working independently of one another, re-established the dominance of the bad quarto theory. They focused on a genealogical error in ''The Contention'', which they argue seems unlikely to have been made by an author, and is therefore only attributable to a reporter. In ''The Contention'', when York sets out his claim to the throne, he identifies
Edmund of Langley Edmund is a masculine given name in the English language. The name is derived from the Old English elements ''ēad'', meaning "prosperity" or "riches", and ''mund'', meaning "protector". Persons named Edmund include: People Kings and nobles * E ...
as Edward III's second son, instead of his fifth. In ''2 Henry VI'', Langley is correctly placed in the genealogy. This error renders unnecessary York's need to claim the throne through his mother's ancestry: were he descended from the second son, he himself would be descended directly from an elder son than Henry. It has been argued that "no one who understood what he was writing—that is, no author—could have made this error, but someone parroting someone else's work, of which he himself had but a dim understanding—that is, a reporter—easily could." Act 3, Scene 1, has been pinpointed as another scene which provides evidence that ''The Contention'' is a reported text. In ''The Contention'', after the court has turned on Gloucester, Suffolk then illogically switches back to discussing the regentship of France. Horner and Thump are introduced and Gloucester arranges for them to formally
duel A duel is an arranged engagement in combat between two people with matched weapons. During the 17th and 18th centuries (and earlier), duels were mostly single combats fought with swords (the rapier and later the small sword), but beginning in ...
. At this point, Gloucester leaves, but without any discernible reason. Margaret then strikes Eleanor, Gloucester returns, and he and his wife leave together. Steven Urkowitz (a staunch opponent of the theory of bad quartos in general) argues that the difference in the two scenes is an example of "the finely Shakespearean first choices recorded in the Quarto." Roger Warren, however, argues that the scene provides strong evidence that ''The Contention'' is a reported text; "it is not hard to conjecture how the Quarto's version came about. The conflicting claims of York and Somerset led to the Armourer and his Man being introduced too soon; whoever was compiling the Quarto text remembered that Humphrey left the stage, though not why, but ''did'' remember that while he was offstage Margaret struck his wife. The utterly unmotivated exit and reappearance of Humphrey in itself rules out any possibility that the Quarto's scene is a legitimate alternative to the Folio version, rather than a confused report of it." Further evidence for the reported text theory is provided in how other plays are used throughout ''The Contention''. For example, the line from Marlowe's ''
The Tragical History of Doctor Faustus ''The Tragical History of the Life and Death of Doctor Faustus'', commonly referred to simply as ''Doctor Faustus'', is an Elizabethan tragedy by Christopher Marlowe, based on German stories about a scholar who sells his soul to the devil in e ...
'' "Now Faustus, what wouldst thou have me do?" (1.3.36) is reproduced as "Now Bolingbroke, what wouldst thou have me do?", while Marlowe's "The wild O'Neill, with swarms of Irish kerns, / Lives uncontrolled within the English pale" (2.2.163–164) from ''
Edward II Edward II (25 April 1284 – 21 September 1327), also known as Edward of Caernarfon or Caernarvon, was King of England from 1307 until he was deposed in January 1327. The fourth son of Edward I, Edward became the heir to the throne follo ...
'' is paraphrased in Act 3, Scene 1, as "The wild O'Neill, my lords, is up in arms,/ With troops of Irish kerns that uncontrolled / Doth plant themselves within the English pale". Even a line from ''3 Henry VI'' ("If our King Henry had shook hands with death" (1.4.103)) appears in Act 3, Scene 1, all of which suggests that, as is so often the case in the bad quartos, the reporter was filling in blanks (i.e. passages he could not remember) with extracts from other plays.


''The Contention'' as early draft

Steven Urkowitz has spoken at great length about the debate between the bad quarto theory and the early draft theory, coming down firmly on the side of the early draft. Urkowitz argues that the quarto of ''2 Henry VI'' and the octavo of ''3 Henry VI'' actually present scholars with a unique opportunity to see a play evolving, as Shakespeare edited and rewrote certain sections; "the texts of ''2'' and ''3 Henry VI'' offer particularly rich illustrations of textual variation and theatrical transformation." Urkowitz cites the dialogue in the opening scene of ''2 Henry VI'' as especially strong evidence of the early draft theory. In ''The Contention'', Henry receives Margaret with joy and an exclamation that all his worldly troubles are behind him. Margaret is then depicted as utterly humble, vowing to love the King no matter what. After the initial meeting then, Henry asks Margaret to sit beside him before bidding the Lords to stand nearby and welcome her. In ''2 Henry VI'', on the other hand, Henry is more cautious in greeting Margaret, seeing her as a relief for his problems, but only if she and he can find common ground and love one another. She herself is also much bolder and self-congratulatory in ''2 Henry VI'' than in ''The Contention''. Additionally, in ''2 Henry VI'' there is no reference to anyone sitting, and the lords kneel before speaking to Margaret. Urkowitz summarises these differences by arguing,
In the visible geometry of courtly ceremony, the Folio version offers us a bold Queen Margaret and an exuberant king who stands erect while the visibly subordinated nobles kneel before them. In contrast to the modest queen seated beside the king surrounded by standing nobles, in this text at the equivalent moment, we have an assertive queen standing upright with her monarch, visibly subordinating the kneeling, obedient lords. Distinct theatrical representations of psychological and political tensions distinguish the two versions of the passage. Both texts "work" by leading an audience through an elaborate ceremonial display fraught with symbolic gestures of emotional attachment, sanctification, regal authority, and feudal obedience, but each displays a distinct pattern of language and coded gestures. Such fine-tuning of dramatic themes and actions are staples of professional theatrical writing.
The differences in the texts are of the sort one tends to find in texts that were altered from an original form, and Urkowitz cites Eric Rasmussen, E. A. J. Honigmann, and Grace Ioppolo as supporting this view. He refers to the case of
Richard Brinsley Sheridan Richard Brinsley Butler Sheridan (30 October 17517 July 1816) was an Anglo-Irish playwright, writer and Whig politician who sat in the British House of Commons from 1780 to 1812, representing the constituencies of Stafford, Westminster and I ...
's ''
The School for Scandal ''The School for Scandal'' is a comedy of manners written by Richard Brinsley Sheridan. It was first performed in London at Drury Lane Theatre on 8 May 1777. Plot Act I Scene I: Lady Sneerwell, a wealthy young widow, and her hireling S ...
'' (1777), which existed in an earlier form, also by Sheridan, in a two-part play ''The Slanderers'' and ''Sir Peter Teazel'', which he argues contain the same type of modifications as is found in the ''Henry VI'' plays. Urkowitz is not alone in finding evidence to support the early draft theory. For example, in ''The Contention'', Margery Jourdayne is referred to as "the cunning witch of Ely", but in ''2 Henry VI'' she is referred to merely as "the cunning witch." The traditional argument to explain this disparity is that such information was added by either Shakespeare or someone else during rehearsals, but was not found in the
prompt book Prompt may refer to: Computing * Command prompt, characters indicating the computer is ready to accept input * Command Prompt, also known as cmd.exe or cmd, the command-line interpreter in some operating systems * Prompt (natural language), instr ...
which was used to print the ''First Folio''. However, R. B. McKerrow argues against the likelihood of this theory. He asks why a writer would go back to a chronicle source to add a piece of information which is of no importance dramatically, and brings nothing to the scene. McKerrow suggests that the line was cut after performance. A similar example is found in Act 4, Scene 7, where Cade orders his men to kill Lord Saye and Sir James Comer. In ''2 Henry VI'', Cade orders them to cut off Saye's head and then go to Cromer's house and kill him, but in ''The Contention'', he tells them to bring Saye to "Standard in
Cheapside Cheapside is a street in the City of London, the historic and modern financial centre of London, England, which forms part of the A40 road, A40 London to Fishguard road. It links St Martin's Le Grand with Poultry, London, Poultry. Near its eas ...
", and then go to Cromer's house in " Mile End Green." McKerrow argues that such unimportant detail suggests removal after performance rather than addition before performance. More evidence is found in Act 2, Scene 1. In ''The Contention'', after Winchester has accepted Gloucester's challenge to a duel (l. 38; "Marry, when thou dar'est"), there is additional dialogue not found in ''2 Henry VI'';
''GLOUCESTER'' Dare? I tell thee priest,
Plantagenets The House of Plantagenet ( /plænˈtædʒənət/ ''plan-TAJ-ə-nət'') was a royal house which originated from the French county of Anjou. The name Plantagenet is used by modern historians to identify four distinct royal houses: the Angevi ...
could never brook the dare. ''WINCHESTER'' I am Plantagenet as well as thou, And son of
John of Gaunt John of Gaunt, Duke of Lancaster (6 March 1340 – 3 February 1399), was an English royal prince, military leader and statesman. He was the fourth son (third surviving) of King Edward III of England, and the father of King Henry IV. Because ...
. ''GLOUCESTER'' In bastardy. ''WINCHESTER'' I scorn thy words.
Again, McKerrow's argument here is not that these lines were added during rehearsals, but that they existed in an early draft of the play and were removed after rehearsals, as they were simply deemed unnecessary; the animosity between the two had already been well established. However, the theory that ''The Contention'' may be an early draft does not necessarily imply that it could not also represent a bad quarto. Traditionally, most critics (such as Alexander, Doran, McKerrow and Urkowitz) have looked at the problem as an either–or situation; ''The Contention'' is ''either'' a reported text ''or'' an early draft, but recently there has been some argument that it may be both. For example, this is the theory supported by Roger Warren in his ''Oxford Shakespeare'' edition of the play. It is also the theory advanced by Randall Martin in his ''Oxford Shakespeare'' edition of ''3 Henry VI''. The crux of the argument is that both the evidence for the bad quarto theory and the evidence for the early draft theory are so compelling that neither is able to completely refute the other. As such, if the play contains evidence of being both a reported text ''and'' an early draft, it must be both; i.e. ''The Contention'' represents a reported text ''of'' an early draft of ''2 Henry VI''. Shakespeare wrote an early version of the play, which was staged. Shortly after that staging, some of the actors constructed a bad quarto from it and had it published. In the meantime, Shakespeare had rewritten the play into the form found in the ''First Folio''. Warren argues that this is the only theory which can account for the strong evidence for both reporting and revision, and it is a theory which is gaining increased support in the late twentieth/early twenty-first century.


Language

Language, throughout the play, helps to establish the theme as well as the tone of each particular episode. For example, the opening speech of the play is an ornate, formal declaration by Suffolk:
As by your high imperial majesty I had in charge at my depart for France, As Procurator to your excellence, To marry Princess Margaret for your grace, So in the famous ancient city
Tours Tours ( ; ) is the largest city in the region of Centre-Val de Loire, France. It is the Prefectures in France, prefecture of the Departments of France, department of Indre-et-Loire. The Communes of France, commune of Tours had 136,463 inhabita ...
, In presence of the Kings of France and Sicil, The Dukes of
Orléans Orléans (,"Orleans"
(US) and
Calabre, Bretagne, and
Alençon Alençon (, , ; ) is a commune in Normandy, France, and the capital of the Orne department. It is situated between Paris and Rennes (about west of Paris) and a little over north of Le Mans. Alençon belongs to the intercommunality of Alen ...
, Seven earls, twelve barons, and twenty reverend bishops, I have performed my task and was espoused, And humbly now upon my bended knee, In sight of England and her lordly peers, Deliver up my title in the Queen To your most gracious hands, that are the substance Of that great shadow I did represent: The happiest gift that ever marquis gave, The fairest queen that ever king received. ::::::: (1.1.1–16)
The substance of Suffolk's speech is "As I was instructed to marry Margaret on your behalf, I did so, and now I deliver her to you." However, the formality of the scene and the importance of the event require him to deliver this message in heightened language, with the formal significance of Henry's marriage to Margaret mirrored in the formal language used by Suffolk to announce that marriage. Language conveys the importance of religion throughout the play. Henry's language often echoes the
Bible The Bible is a collection of religious texts that are central to Christianity and Judaism, and esteemed in other Abrahamic religions such as Islam. The Bible is an anthology (a compilation of texts of a variety of forms) originally writt ...
. For example, hearing of the Cade rebellion, he comments "Ο graceless men, they know not what they do" (4.4.37), echoing the
Gospel of Luke The Gospel of Luke is the third of the New Testament's four canonical Gospels. It tells of the origins, Nativity of Jesus, birth, Ministry of Jesus, ministry, Crucifixion of Jesus, death, Resurrection of Jesus, resurrection, and Ascension of ...
: "Father, forgive them: for they know not what they do" (23:34). Earlier in the play, he refers to
heaven Heaven, or the Heavens, is a common Religious cosmology, religious cosmological or supernatural place where beings such as deity, deities, angels, souls, saints, or Veneration of the dead, venerated ancestors are said to originate, be throne, ...
as "the treasury of everlasting joy" (2.1.18), recalling the
Gospel of Matthew The Gospel of Matthew is the first book of the New Testament of the Bible and one of the three synoptic Gospels. It tells the story of who the author believes is Israel's messiah (Christ (title), Christ), Jesus, resurrection of Jesus, his res ...
's "lay up treasures for yourselves in heaven" (6:20), and then a few lines later he muses "blessèd are the peacemakers on earth" (2.1.34), echoing Jesus'
Sermon on the Mount The Sermon on the Mount ( anglicized from the Matthean Vulgate Latin section title: ) is a collection of sayings spoken by Jesus of Nazareth found in the Gospel of Matthew (chapters 5, 6, and 7). that emphasizes his moral teachings. It is th ...
. On both of these occasions, however, Cardinal Winchester, ostensibly a pious man, distorts Henry's genuine piety. After Henry's assessment of heaven, Winchester says to Gloucester, "Thy heaven is on earth, thine eyes and thoughts/Beat on a crown, the treasure of thy heart" (2.1.19–20). Then, after Henry praises peacemakers, Winchester hypocritically says, "Let me be blessèd for the peace I make,/Against this proud Protector with my sword" (2.1.35–36). The Cardinal mocks religion shortly before the murder of Gloucester. Speaking of the forthcoming murder, Suffolk says, "And to preserve my sovereign from his foe,/Say but the word and I will be his priest" (3.1.271–272), to which Winchester responds "But I would have him dead, my Lord of Suffolk,/Ere you can take due orders for a priest" (3.1.273–274), disdaining priesthood and trivialising murder. After Gloucester is dead, Winchester continues to blaspheme himself, proclaiming the death of Gloucester to be "God's secret judgement" (3.2.31), a callous and knowing distortion. Shakespeare uses language to distinguish between different types of characters. The courtly scenes tend to be spoken in blank verse, whereas the commons tend to speak in
prose Prose is language that follows the natural flow or rhythm of speech, ordinary grammatical structures, or, in writing, typical conventions and formatting. Thus, prose ranges from informal speaking to formal academic writing. Prose differs most n ...
, with fewer metaphors and less decorative language (Shakespeare uses this contrast in several plays, such as ''
The Two Gentlemen of Verona ''The Two Gentlemen of Verona'' is a Shakespearean comedy, comedy by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written between 1589 and 1593. It is considered by some to be Shakespeare's first play, and is often seen as showing his first ten ...
'', where prose marks the servants out from their masters). When power begins to go to Jack Cade's head, he begins to slip into a more courtly way of speaking. This is most noticeable in his adoption of the '
royal we The royal ''we'', majestic plural (), or royal plural, is the use of a plural pronoun (or corresponding plural-inflected verb forms) used by a single person who is a monarch or holds a high office to refer to themself. A more general term fo ...
', using phrases such as "our jurisdiction regal" (4.7.24), and "we charge and command" (4.7.116). The longest speech in the play is Margaret's lament to Henry after they have found Gloucester's dead body. This lengthy speech is full of classical allusions, elaborate metaphors and verbosity as Margaret moves through a litany of topics in an effort to make her point:
Be woe for me, more wretched than he is. What, dost thou turn away and hide thy face? I am no loathsome leper, look on me. What, art thou like the adder waxen deaf? Be poisonous too and kill thy forlorn queen. Is all thy comfort shut in Gloucester's tomb? Why then Queen Margaret was ne'er thy joy. Erect his statua and worship it, And make my image but an alehouse sign. Was I for this nigh wracked upon the sea, And twice by awkward winds from England's bank Drove back again unto my native clime? What boded this, but well forewarning winds Did seem to say, 'Seek not a scorpion's nest, Nor set no footing on this unkind shore'? What did I then, but cursed the gentle gusts And he that loosed them forth their brazen caves, And bid them blow towards England's blessèd shore, Or turn our stern upon a dreadful rock? Yet
Aeolus In Greek mythology, Aiolos, transcribed as Aeolus (; ; ) refers to three characters. These three are often difficult to tell apart, and even the ancient mythographers appear to have been perplexed about which Aeolus was which. Diodorus Siculus m ...
would not be a murderer, But left that hateful office unto thee. The pretty vaulting sea refused to drown me, Knowing that thou wouldst have me drowned on shore With tears as salt as sea through thy unkindness. The splitting rocks cow'red in the sinking sands, And would not dash me with their ragged sides, Because thy flinty heart, more hard than they, Might in thy palace perish Margaret. As far as I could ken thy chalky cliffs, When from thy shore the tempest beat us back, I stood upon the hatches in the storm, And when the dusky sky began to rob My earnest-gaping sight of thy land's view, I took a costly jewel from my neck— A heart it was, bound in with diamonds— And threw it towards thy land. The sea received it, And so I wished thy body might my heart. And even with this I lost fair England's view, And bid mine eyes be packing with my heart, And called them blind and dusky spectacles, For losing ken of
Albion Albion is an alternative name for Great Britain. The oldest attestation of the toponym comes from the Greek language. It is sometimes used poetically and generally to refer to the island, but is less common than "Britain" today. The name for Scot ...
's wishèd coast. How often have I tempted Suffolk's tongue— The agent of thy foul inconstancy— To sit and witch me, as
Ascanius Ascanius (; Ancient Greek: Ἀσκάνιος) was a Kings of Alba Longa , legendary king of Alba Longa (traditional reign: 1176 BC to 1138 BC) and the son of the Troy, Trojan hero Aeneas and of Creusa of Troy, Creusa, daughter of Priam. He is a ...
did, When he to madding
Dido Dido ( ; , ), also known as Elissa ( , ), was the legendary founder and first queen of the Phoenician city-state of Carthage (located in Tunisia), in 814 BC. In most accounts, she was the queen of the Phoenician city-state of Tyre (located ...
would unfold His father's acts, commenced in burning
Troy Troy (/; ; ) or Ilion (; ) was an ancient city located in present-day Hisarlik, Turkey. It is best known as the setting for the Greek mythology, Greek myth of the Trojan War. The archaeological site is open to the public as a tourist destina ...
! Am I not witched like her? Or thou not false like him? Ay me, I can no more. Die Margaret, For Henry weeps that thou dost live so long. ::::::: (3.2.73–121)
There is some debate amongst critics as to the meaning and purpose of this speech, although all tend to agree that the meaning is inherently tied up in the elaborate language. Some critics (such as
Stanley Wells Sir Stanley William Wells, (born 21 May 1930) is an English Shakespearean scholar, writer, professor and editor who has been honorary president of the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, professor emeritus at Birmingham University, and author of many ...
) argue that the speech, with its wordiness, abstraction, strained allusions, and lengthy metaphors, is poorly written, evidence that Shakespeare was not yet in control of his medium. Proponents of this theory point to ''The Contention'', where only seven lines are retained, with the argument being that the rest of the speech was cut from performance. L.C. Knights, by contrast, argues that the speech is deliberately excessive and highly-wrought because Margaret is trying to deflect the already confused and dejected Henry from accusing Suffolk of the murder. Peter Hall suggested that "the speech is there to establish the emotional, hysterical side of Margaret's nature. I think that is why the language gets so extremely elaborate—it is an attempt by Margaret to contain her turbulent emotions by expressing them in such a strange way."Warren (2000: 43) The complete antithesis of this theory has also been suggested as a possibility: that the speech shows not that Margaret is losing control, but that she is completely in control of herself and her emotions. This theory is most noticeable in how director Jane Howell had
Julia Foster Julia Foster (born 2 August 1943) is an English stage, screen, and television actress. Early life Foster was born in Lewes, Sussex. She was educated at a convent. Career Foster's credits include the films '' The Loneliness of the Long Distan ...
act the part in the 1981 ''
BBC Television Shakespeare The ''BBC Television Shakespeare'' is a series of British television adaptations of Shakespeare's plays, the plays of William Shakespeare, created by Cedric Messina and broadcast by BBC Television. Transmitted in the UK from 3 December 1978 to ...
'' adaptation. Here, Margaret uses her speech to vent her intense emotions, not to contain them. The far ranging metaphors and classical allusions are her way of letting go of her pent up rage and emotion, her disdain for Henry and her inherent passion. In
Terry Hands Terence David Hands, (9 January 1941 – 4 February 2020) was an English theatre director. He founded the Liverpool Everyman Theatre and ran the Royal Shakespeare Company for thirteen years during one of the company's most successful periods; ...
' 1977 production for the
Royal Shakespeare Company The Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) is a major British theatre company, based in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England. The company employs over 1,000 staff and opens around 20 productions a year. The RSC plays regularly in London, Stratf ...
, Margaret (played by
Helen Mirren Dame Helen Mirren (; born Ilyena Lydia Vasilievna Mironov; 26 July 1945) is an English actor. With a career spanning over six decades of Helen Mirren on screen and stage, screen and stage, List of awards and nominations received by Helen Mirre ...
) tried to bring Henry back from the brink of madness by engaging his mind in an elaborate, difficult to follow verbal dance. Henry's preceding speech to Suffolk, where he demands Suffolk not look at him, and then immediately demands that he wants to look into Suffolk's eyes was played by
Alan Howard Alan Howard may refer to: * Alan Howard (actor) (1937–2015), English actor * Alan Howard (cricketer) (1909–1993), English cricketer * Alan Howard (engineer) (1905–1966), American engineer * Alan Howard (hedge fund manager) (born 1963), hed ...
in such a way as to suggest that Henry was losing his grip on reality, and in response to this, Mirren played the speech in such a way as to engage Henry's mind in the here and now, focus his thoughts and prevent them drifting away.


Themes


Henry's weakness

A major theme of the play is Henry's inherent weakness and his inability to control the country or even his own court. According to Martin, Henry's weakness as king was the main reason that many nineteenth century critics judged ''2 Henry VI'' to lack emotion: Henry was so inept that audiences could not empathise with him, and hence, his tragedy was diminished. There are numerous examples throughout the play which such critics could have focused on. For example, Henry fails to unite his bickering nobles, and instead allows them to push him around as they decide for themselves how to act and what to do, and at the same time, he allows himself to be utterly dominated by Margaret. He is so subservient that he consents to the imprisonment of a man (Gloucester) he loves and knows to be innocent, and then attempts to hide from the implications of this decision, trying to leave the court after Gloucester's arrest:
''KING HENRY'' My lords, what to your wisdoms seemeth best Do or undo, as if ourself were here. ''QUEEN MARGARET'' What, will your highness leave the parliament? ''KING HENRY'' Ay Margaret, my heart is drowned with grief, Whose flood begins to flow within mine eyes. ::::::: (3.1.195–199)
This leads Henry to a realisation of how he has failed Gloucester, and to lament his own lack of decisiveness and resolution:
And as the butcher takes away the calf, And binds the wretch, and beats it when it strains, Bearing it to the bloody slaughterhouse, Even so remorseless have they borne him hence; And as the dam runs lowing up and down, Looking the way her harmless young one went, And can do naught but wail her darling's loss, Even so myself bewails good Gloucester's case With sad unhelpful tears, and with dimmed eyes Look after him, and cannot do him good, So mighty are his vowèd enemies. ::::::: (3.1.210–220)
Another example of his weakness as ruler is seen in his utter indifference to the vital decision of choosing a new French regent; as Somerset and York debate the issue, each trying to convince Henry that they should be the one to get the job, Henry dismissively declares, "For my part, noble Lords, I care not which:/Or Somerset or York, all's one to me" (1.3.102–103). This lack of concern is forcibly emphasised when Somerset later tells Henry that all French territories have been lost, and Henry responds nonchalantly, "Cold news, Lord Somerset; but God's will be done" (3.1.86). His lack of decisive leadership is even referred to by others; Margaret claims that "Henry my lord is cold in great affairs,/Too full of foolish pity" (3.1.224–225). Later, when the Irish post appears with news of rebellion, York says he will do whatever Henry deems necessary, to which Suffolk responds "Why, our authority is his consent,/And what we do establish he confirms" (3.1.316–317). Henry is presented as a good man, but a poor king, to whom Roger Warren refers as "a man of deep religious conviction but no political acumen." He is a weak leader, and it is partly his failure to assert his authority that is responsible for the chaos that takes over the country. As director Peter Hall says, "In theory, Henry should be a good king. He applies
Christian A Christian () is a person who follows or adheres to Christianity, a Monotheism, monotheistic Abrahamic religion based on the life and teachings of Jesus in Christianity, Jesus Christ. Christians form the largest religious community in the wo ...
ethics to government. But he is up against men who don't. They justify their behaviour by invoking the great sanctions—God, the King, Parliament, the People—that unscrupulous statesmen, motivated by the naked desire to be on top, have used throughout the ages. Here is the central irony of the play: Henry's Christian goodness produces evil."


Contrast between Henry and Margaret

Another major theme throughout the play is the contrast between Margaret and Henry, something which is introduced when they first meet. Henry thanks God for bringing Margaret to him, and exclaims "For thou hast given me in this beauteous face/A world of earthly blessing to my soul,/If sympathy of love unite our thoughts" (1.1.21–23). The irony here, much commented on by critics, is that this unity is exactly what does not happen—their thoughts never unite, and their contrasting and incompatible attitudes are seen time and again throughout the play. For example, after the false miracle, Henry is distraught and laments, "O God, seest thou this and bear'st so long?" (2.1.150), while Margaret's response is much more mundane; "It made me laugh to see the villain run" (2.1.151). When Buckingham arrives to bring news to Henry of Eleanor's dabbling in necromancy, Henry's reaction is pious and sorrowful, "O God, what mischiefs work the wicked ones,/Heaping confusion on their heads thereby" (2.1.181–182). Margaret's response, however, is combative, using the news to forward her own agenda; "Gloucester, see here the tainture of thy nest,/And look thyself be faultless, thou wert best" (2.1.183–184). Later, when Horner and Thump are about to fight, Henry sees the contest as a sacred point of honour: "A God's name, see the lists and all things fit;/Here let them end it, and God defend the right" (2.3.54–55). Margaret, however, is simply looking forward to a fight; "For purposely therefore,/Left I the court to see this quarrel tried" (2.3.52–53). Henry is "fatally married to his polar opposite."Warren (2000: 26) The contrast between them is perhaps most forcibly realised when Gloucester dies in Act 3, Scene 2. Margaret makes a speech in which she points out how it is unfair to accuse Suffolk of the murder simply because Suffolk and Gloucester were enemies, as she and Gloucester's wife were enemies too, so if Suffolk is a suspect, so should she be one as well; "Ay me unhappy,/To be a queen, and crowned with infamy" (70–71). Again, she is turning events to focus on herself. Henry, however, completely ignores her, calling out sorrowfully; "Ah, woe is me for Gloucester, wretched man" (72). This situation is repeated during the Cade rebellion, but this time they ignore one another. After the rebels deliver their terms to Henry, he tells Buckingham he will speak with Cade, but Margaret is concerned only with herself and Suffolk (whose head she is now carrying). Speaking to the head she ignores Henry's problems and exclaims, "Ah barbarous villain! Hath this lovely face/Ruled like a wandering planet over me,/And could it not enforce them to relent,/That were unworthy to behold the same?" (4.4.14–17). Henry, however, ignores this, and continues to deal with the rebel demands, saying simply, "Lord Saye, Jack Cade hath sworn to have thy head" (4.4.18). This tendency for them to ignore one another is another example of their incompatibility, their failure to unite in thoughts.


Religion

Religion is a fundamental fact of life to Henry, who is presented as truly pious. Shakespeare may have taken this aspect of Henry's character from Edward Hall's description of him: "He did abhor of his own nature, all the vices, as well of the body as of the soul; and from his very infancy he was of honest conversation and pure integrity; no knower of evil, and a keeper of all goodness; a despiser of all things which were wont to cause the minds of mortal men to slide or appair. Besides this, patience was so radicate in his heart that of all the injuries to him committed (which were no small number) he never asked vengeance nor punishment, but for that rendered to Almighty God, his Creator, hearty thanks, thinking that by this trouble and adversity his sins were to him forgotten and forgiven." When Henry first meets Margaret, his reaction is to welcome her, and then immediately thank God for bringing her to him; "I can express no kinder sign of love/Than this kind kiss. O Lord that lends me life,/Lend me a heart replete with thankfulness!" (1.1.18–20). Hearing later of the false miracle, even before meeting Simpcox, Henry exclaims, "Now God be praised, that to believing souls/Gives light in darkness, comfort in despair" (2.1.64–65). Henry accepts the authenticity of the event without evidence, trusting in his faith that it is true and that God has performed a miracle. Later, when Henry is defending Gloucester against accusations of treason, he uses two religious images to get his point across: "Our kinsman Gloucester is as innocent/From meaning treason to our royal person/As is the sucking lamb or harmless
dove Columbidae is a bird family consisting of doves and pigeons. It is the only family in the order Columbiformes. These are stout-bodied birds with small heads, relatively short necks and slender bills that in some species feature fleshy ceres. ...
" (3.1.69–71). Upon seeing the delirious Winchester, Henry exclaims "O thou eternal mover of the heavens,/Look with a gentle eye upon this wretch" (3.3.19–20). Then, after Winchester's death, Warwick comments "So bad a death argues a monstrous life", to which Henry replies "Forbear to judge, for we are sinners all" (3.3.30–31). Henry believes that justice, truth and guilt are determined by God, not through human actions. After the fight between Horner and Thump, Henry announces,
For by his death we do perceive his guilt. And God in justice hath revealed to us The truth and innocence of this poor fellow, Which he had thought to have murdered wrongfully. ::::::: (2.3.101–104)
Indeed, so devoted to God is Henry that other characters comment on it. For example, when Margaret is mockingly describing Henry to Suffolk, she says,
But all his mind is bent to holiness, To number Ave-Maries on his beads, His champions are the prophets and
apostles An apostle (), in its literal sense, is an emissary. The word is derived from Ancient Greek ἀπόστολος (''apóstolos''), literally "one who is sent off", itself derived from the verb ἀποστέλλειν (''apostéllein''), "to se ...
, His weapons holy saws of sacred writ, His study is his
tilt-yard A tiltyard (or tilt yard or tilt-yard) was an enclosed courtyard for jousting. Tiltyards were a common feature of Tudor era castles and palaces. The Horse Guards Parade in London was formerly the tiltyard constructed by Henry VIII of England, Henr ...
, and his loves Are brazen images of canonized saints. I would the college of the cardinals Would choose him Pope, and carry him to Rome, And set the triple crown upon his head; That were a state fit for his holiness. ::::::: (1.3.56–65)
York twice refers to Henry's piousness. First, when outlining his plan to assume power he refers to Henry as a king "Whose church-like humours fits not for a crown" (1.1.246). Then, when making his argument as to why he should be king, he says to Henry, "Thy hand is made to grasp a
palmer Palmer may refer to: People and fictional characters * Palmer (pilgrim), a medieval European pilgrim to the Holy Land * Palmer (given name), including a list of people and fictional characters * Palmer (surname), including a list of people and f ...
's staff/And not to grace an aweful princely sceptre" (5.1.97–98).


Justice

Ideas of
justice In its broadest sense, justice is the idea that individuals should be treated fairly. According to the ''Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy'', the most plausible candidate for a core definition comes from the ''Institutes (Justinian), Inst ...
are paramount throughout the play, especially the notion of where justice comes from and who determines it. This is hinted at when Thump first meets Henry, and Henry asks Gloucester's opinion. Gloucester says,
And let these have a day appointed them For single combat in convenient place, For he hath witness of his servant's malice. This is the law, and this Duke Humphrey's doom. ::::::: (1.3.208–211)
Of this scene, Michael Hattaway has commented, "the
feudal Feudalism, also known as the feudal system, was a combination of legal, economic, military, cultural, and political customs that flourished in Middle Ages, medieval Europe from the 9th to 15th centuries. Broadly defined, it was a way of struc ...
ritual of
trial by combat Trial by combat (also wager of battle, trial by battle or judicial duel) was a method of Germanic law to settle accusations in the absence of witnesses or a confession in which two parties in dispute fought in single combat; the winner of the ...
is reduced to the grotesque fights between the drunken armourer and his apprentice ..It serves to mirror the realities of the play: instead of seeing justice determined by God with regards to the rights of the adversaries, here we see simply a trial of might."Hattaway (1991: 14) As Henry himself says,
For by his death we do perceive his guilt. And God in justice hath revealed to us The truth and innocence of this poor fellow, Which he had thought to have murdered wrongfully. ::::::: (2.3.101–104)
He returns to this notion later, again arguing that truth is a defence against death and defeat:
What stronger breastplate than a heart untainted? Thrice is he armed that hath his quarrel just; And he but naked, though locked up in steel, Whose conscience with injustice is corrupted. ::::::: (3.2.232–235)
Henry believes in the purity of justice, and cannot imagine how it could possibly be corrupt; "And poise the cause in justice' equal scales/Whose beam stands sure, whose rightful cause prevails" (2.1.199–200). However, the perversion of justice is also a dominant theme throughout the play, despite Henry's inability to see it. One of the most famous lines in the play, spoken by the rebel Cade's sidekick Dick the Butcher, is " the first thing we do, let's kill all the lawyers".According to Daniel J. Kornstein, "These ten words are Shakespeare's most well-known and lasting popular legacy to the law. Is it one of those key lines that seem to give us a glimpse into Shakespeare's own mind, or is it merely a joke? From all of Shakespeare's thirty-seven plays, that one familiar line stands out more than any other as a stinging comment on the legal profession. Its pith and pungency have helped it survive. Shakespeare's anti-lawyer line, once heard, clings to the mind like a burr. It has been repeated so often that many who have never read any Shakespeare know the quotation. It has passed into common usage and become a cliche that even shows up on T-shirts popular among law students, on souvenir plates, coffee mugs, pillows, and as a title of a movie about a young man's decision to reject a legal career in favor of becoming a gardener.", Daniel J. Kornstein, ''Kill All the Lawyers? Shakespeare's Legal Appeal'', University of Nebraska Press, 2005, pp. 22–29. Whether this means that lawyers are the protectors of justice, or the agents of its corruption is disputed. Gloucester assures Eleanor that as long as he has truth on his side, his enemies cannot destroy him: "I must offend before I be attainted,/And had I twenty times so many foes,/And each of them had twenty times their power,/All these could not procure me any scathe/So long as I am loyal, true, and crimeless" (2.4.60–64). His claims prove false, however, as he is arrested on false charges and then assassinated before his trial. Later in the play, Lord Saye makes a similar claim. When Buckingham warns him to be careful as the rebels are targeting people like him, Saye responds "The trust I have is in mine innocence,/And therefore am I bold and resolute" (4.4.58–59). Like Humphrey, his "innocence" does not save him, and both he and his son-in-law are killed by the rebels. The nobles disdain for justice is revealed more forcibly when Henry, unaware that Gloucester is dead, asks the court to treat him fairly, and Margaret, knowing he is both innocent and dead, responds, "God forbid any malice should prevail/That faultless may condemn a noble man" (3.2.23–24). As Hattaway points out "In England under Henry, law bears little relation to
divinity Divinity (from Latin ) refers to the quality, presence, or nature of that which is divine—a term that, before the rise of monotheism, evoked a broad and dynamic field of sacred power. In the ancient world, divinity was not limited to a single ...
and stands divorced from equity. The regal and judicial roles of the king's court are hopelessly confused, so that the status of the institution itself is compromised." The lords' failure to understand the need for an impartial and functioning
judiciary The judiciary (also known as the judicial system, judicature, judicial branch, judiciative branch, and court or judiciary system) is the system of courts that adjudicates legal disputes/disagreements and interprets, defends, and applies the law ...
is echoed in the rebellion; "The virulent ambition and hostility to law that characterised the barons equally characterise the workmen," suggesting there is no difference between the old order and the new. This is evident in Cade's speech after ordering the execution of Lord Saye; "The proudest peer in the realm shall not wear a head on his shoulders unless he pay me tribute. There shall not a maid be married but she shall pay to me her
maidenhead Maidenhead is a market town in the Royal Borough of Windsor and Maidenhead in the county of Berkshire, England. It lies on the southwestern bank of the River Thames, which at this point forms the border with Buckinghamshire. In the 2021 Census, ...
ere they have it. Men shall hold of me ''
in capite In old English law, a capite (from Latin ''caput'', head) was a tenure in subinfeudation, by which either person or land was held immediately of the king, or of his crown, either by knight-service or socage. A holder of a capite is termed a tenant ...
''. And we charge and command that their wives be as free as heart can wish or tongue can tell" (4.7.112–117). In this proposed new world order, Cade envisions establishing an
autocracy Autocracy is a form of government in which absolute power is held by the head of state and Head of government, government, known as an autocrat. It includes some forms of monarchy and all forms of dictatorship, while it is contrasted with demo ...
where all will pay fealty to him, and where his laws, which he can make arbitrarily, stand for everyone. As such, in this political system, as in the old, law and justice seem to have little relevance.


Physical destruction

Physical violence permeates the play, with many characters dying violently. Gloucester is suffocated in his bed; Winchester dies in a passionate frenzy; Suffolk is beheaded; Somerset and Clifford are killed in battle; Cade has Matthew Gough, Humphrey Stafford, William Stafford, Lord Saye, James Comer, and the Clerk of Chatham executed during the rebellion, and is then killed and beheaded himself by Alexander Iden. Gloucester's death in particular is associated with the physical, as seen in Warwick's detailed description of the body;
See how the blood is settled in his face. Oft have I seen a timely-parted
ghost In folklore, a ghost is the soul or Spirit (supernatural entity), spirit of a dead Human, person or non-human animal that is believed by some people to be able to appear to the living. In ghostlore, descriptions of ghosts vary widely, from a ...
, Of ashy semblance, meagre, pale, and bloodless, Being all descended to the labouring heart, Who in the conflict that it holds with death Attracts the same for aidance 'gainst the enemy, Which with the heart there cools, and ne'er returneth To blush and beautify the cheek again. But see, his face is black and full of blood; His eyeballs further out than when he lived, Staring full ghastly like a strangled man; His hair upreared, his nostrils stretched with struggling, His hands abroad displayed, as one that grasped And tugged for life and was by strength subdued. Look on the sheets: his hair, you see, is sticking; His well-proportioned beard made rough and rugged, Like to the summer's corn by tempest lodged. It cannot be but he was murdered here. The least of all these signs were probable. ::::::: (3.2.160–178)
Winchester's death is also physically grotesque as he distorts his face and curses God, haunted by the ghost of Gloucester. However, many of the after-death actions are even more macabre than the deaths themselves. Suffolk's head is delivered to Margaret, who carries it around court for the last two acts of the play. Lord Stafford and his brother are killed and their bodies dragged through the streets behind horses. Lord Saye and his son-in-law are beheaded and their heads carried throughout the streets on poles and made to kiss. Cade is beheaded and his head delivered to the king. Not only is physical violence presented as a major theme, but so too is physical desecration, a disregard for the body after death.


Performance

After the original 1592 performances, the complete text of ''2 Henry VI'' seems to have been rarely acted. The first recorded performance after Shakespeare's day was on 23 April 1864 (Shakespeare's tercentenary) at the
Surrey Theatre The Surrey Theatre, London began life in 1782 as the Royal Circus and Equestrian Philharmonic Academy, one of the many circuses that provided entertainment of both horsemanship and drama ( hippodrama). It stood in Blackfriars Road, near the j ...
in London, as a stand-alone performance, with director James Anderson playing York and Cade. Of this production, ''
The Illustrated London News ''The Illustrated London News'', founded by Herbert Ingram and first published on Saturday 14 May 1842, was the world's first illustrated weekly news magazine. The magazine was published weekly for most of its existence, switched to a less freq ...
'' wrote, "It is a revival, or rather restoration to the stage, of an utterly neglected work, which has not been played for 270 years." The next definite performance was in 1889, when George Osmond Tearle directed another stand-alone production at the
Shakespeare Memorial Theatre The Royal Shakespeare Theatre (RST) (originally called the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre) is a Grade II* listed 1,040+ seat thrust stage theatre owned by the Royal Shakespeare Company dedicated to the English playwright and poet William Shakes ...
in Stratford-upon-Avon, starring Erskine Lewis as Henry and
Ellen Cranston Ellen is a female given name, a diminutive of Elizabeth, Eleanor, Elena, and Helen. Ellen was the 609th most popular name in the U.S. and the 17th in Sweden in 2004. People named Ellen include: * Ellen Adarna (born 1988), Filipino actress * ...
as Margaret. In 1899, F.R. Benson directed another stand-alone production of the play at the Shakespeare Memorial Theatre. In 1906, he revived the play, and included ''1 Henry VI'' and ''3 Henry VI'' in a production of Shakespeare's two tetralogies, performed over eight nights. As far as can be ascertained, this was not only the first performance of the octology, but was also the first definite performance of both the tetralogy and the trilogy. Benson himself played Henry and his wife, Constance Benson, played Margaret. In 1951,
Douglas Seale Douglas Seale (28 October 1913 – 13 June 1999) was an English film and stage actor. Early life Born in London, Seale was educated at Rutlish School in Wimbledon and trained for the stage at the Royal Academy of Dramatic Art. Career He m ...
directed a production at the
Birmingham Repertory Theatre Birmingham Repertory Theatre, commonly called Birmingham Rep or just The Rep, is a producing theatre based on Centenary Square in Birmingham, England. Founded by Barry Jackson, it is the longest-established of Britain's building-based theatre ...
, starring
Paul Daneman Paul Frederick Daneman (29 October 1925 – 28 April 2001) was an English film, television, and theatre actor. He was successful for more than 40 years on stage, film and television. Early life Paul Daneman was born in Islington, London. He a ...
as Henry, Rosalind Boxall as Margaret,
John Arnatt John Edwin Arnatt (9 May 1917 – 21 December 1999) was a British actor, best known for his role in ''Doctor Who'' where he played Time Lord Cardinal Borusa in the 1978 serial ''The Invasion of Time'' (1978). Early life and education John Ar ...
as York and
Alfred Burke Alfred Burke (28 February 1918 – 16 February 2011) was an English actor who played Frank Marker in the drama series '' Public Eye'', which ran on television for ten years. Early life Born in London's southeast district of Peckham, the son of ...
as Gloucester. ''2 Henry VI'' has not been performed as a stand-alone play since then, although Seale's production was so successful that ''3 Henry VI'' followed in 1952, and ''1 Henry VI'' in 1953, all with linked casting. A production that made much of its unedited status came in 1977, at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre, where Terry Hands presented all three ''Henry VI'' plays with Alan Howard as Henry and Helen Mirren as Margaret. Although the production was only moderately successful at the box office, it was critically lauded at the time for Alan Howard's unique portrayal of Henry. Howard adopted historical details concerning the real Henry's madness into his performance, presenting the character as constantly on the brink of a mental and emotional breakdown. Also praised was the staging of the battle of St Albans, which was fought between the principal characters only, without any extras or suggestions of it being a larger battle, thus emphasising that the whole conflict grew from what was originally a small family squabble. Possibly as a reaction to a recent adaptation of the trilogy under the general title ''Wars of the Roses'', which was strongly political, Hands attempted to ensure his own production was entirely apolitical; "''Wars of the Roses'' was a study in power politics: its central image was the conference table, and Warwick, the scheming king-maker, was the central figure. But that's not Shakespeare. Shakespeare goes far beyond politics. Politics is a very shallow science." Aside from Howard and Mirren, the production starred
Emrys James Robert Emrys James (1 September 1928 – 5 February 1989) was a Welsh actor. He performed in many theatre and television roles between 1960 and 1989, and was an Associate Artist of the Royal Shakespeare Company. Early life James was born in Mac ...
as York and
Graham Crowden Clement Graham Crowden (30 November 1922 – 19 October 2010) was a Scottish actor. He was best known for his many appearances in television comedy dramas and films, often playing eccentric scientist, teacher and doctor characters. Early life C ...
as Gloucester. Under the direction of Michael Boyd the play was presented at the
Swan Theatre Swan Theatre may refer to: * The Swan (theatre), an Elizabethan playhouse * Swan Theatre, Stratford-upon-Avon, a theatre belonging to the Royal Shakespeare Company in Stratford-upon-Avon, England * Swan Theatre, Worcester The Swan Theatre is a t ...
in Stratford in 2000, with
David Oyelowo David Oyetokunbo Oyelowo ( ; ; born 1 April 1976) is a British actor, director and producer. His accolades include a Critics' Choice Award and two NAACP Image Awards as well as nominations for three Golden Globe Awards, two Primetime Emmy Awar ...
as Henry, Fiona Bell as Margaret,
Clive Wood Clive Wood (born 8 May 1954) is a British actor, known for his television roles in ''Press Gang'' (1989–93), ''The Bill'' (1990), '' London's Burning'' (1996–99), and as King Henry I in '' The Pillars of the Earth'' (2010). His stage roles in ...
as York, and
Richard Cordery Richard Cordery is an actor from the United Kingdom. Career Film and television Cordery's television credits include ''Rumpole of the Bailey'', as a prosecution Barrister (Series 5 Episode 6 - 1988), ''Doc Martin'' as Dennis Dodds, ''Whitechape ...
as Gloucester. The play was presented with the five other history plays (''
Richard II Richard II (6 January 1367 – ), also known as Richard of Bordeaux, was King of England from 1377 until he was deposed in 1399. He was the son of Edward, Prince of Wales (later known as the Black Prince), and Joan, Countess of Kent. R ...
'', ''
1 Henry IV ''Henry IV, Part 1'' (often written as ''1 Henry IV'') is a history play by William Shakespeare, believed to have been written no later than 1597. The play dramatises part of the reign of King Henry IV of England, beginning with the Battle of H ...
'', ''
2 Henry IV ''Henry IV, Part 2'' is a history play by William Shakespeare believed to have been written between 1596 and 1599. It is the third part of a tetralogy, preceded by ''Richard II'' and ''Henry IV, Part 1'' and succeeded by ''Henry V''. The play ...
'', ''
Henry V Henry V may refer to: People * Henry V, Duke of Bavaria (died 1026) * Henry V, Holy Roman Emperor (1081/86–1125) * Henry V, Duke of Carinthia (died 1161) * Henry V, Count Palatine of the Rhine (–1227) * Henry V, Count of Luxembourg (1216–1281 ...
'' and ''Richard III'') to form a complete eight-part history cycle under the general title '' This England: The Histories'' (the first time the RSC had ever attempted to stage the eight plays as one sequence). ''This England: The Histories'' was revived in 2006, as part of the ''
Complete Works The complete works of an artist, writer, musician, group, etc., is a collection of all of their cultural works. For example, ''Complete Works of Shakespeare'' is an edition containing all the plays and poems of William Shakespeare. A ''Complete W ...
'' festival at the
Courtyard Theatre The Courtyard Theatre was a 1,048 seat thrust stage theatre in Stratford-upon-Avon, Warwickshire, England, operated by the Royal Shakespeare Company The Royal Shakespeare Company (RSC) is a major British theatre company, based in Stratf ...
, with the ''Henry VI'' plays again directed by Boyd, and starring Chuk Iwuji as Henry, Katy Stephens as Margaret,
Jonathan Slinger Jonathan Slinger is an English actor. He trained at RADA, graduating in 1994. From there, he went to work at the Royal National Theatre and Shakespeare's Globe. He has also worked extensively with the Royal Shakespeare Company, including the ...
as York and, reprising his role from 2000, Richard Cordery as Gloucester. When the ''Complete Works'' wrapped in March 2007, the history plays remained on stage, under the shorter title ''The Histories'', as part of a two-year thirty-four actor ensemble production. ''2 Henry VI'' was performed under the title ''Henry VI, Part 2: England's Fall''. At the end of the two-year programme, the entire octology was performed over a four-day period under the title ''The Glorious Moment''; ''Richard II'' was staged on a Thursday evening, followed by the two ''Henry IV'' plays on Friday afternoon and evening, the three ''Henry VI'' plays on Saturday (two afternoon performances and one evening performance), and ''Richard III'' on Sunday evening. Boyd's production garnered much attention at the time because of his interpolations and additions to the text. Most notably, Boyd introduced a new character into the trilogy. Called The Keeper, the character never speaks, but upon the death of each major character, the Keeper (played by Edward Clayton in 2000, and by Anthony Bunsee in 2006/2007), wearing all red, would walk onto stage and approach the body. The actor playing the body would then stand up and allow himself to be led off-stage by the figure. Another alteration was that the 'Lieutenant' who orders Suffolk's death in 4.1 was in fact the ghost of Lord Talbot (played by Keith Bartlett), who had been killed in ''1 Henry VI''. Additionally, during Jack Cade's rebellion, the ghosts of Gloucester, Winchester and Suffolk all appear as rebels, and in a much lauded piece of double casting, Clayton and Bunsee also played Dick the Butcher in their respective performances. The production was also particularly noted for its realistic violence. According to Robert Gore-Langton of the ''
Daily Express The ''Daily Express'' is a national daily United Kingdom middle-market newspaper printed in Tabloid (newspaper format), tabloid format. Published in London, it is the flagship of Express Newspapers, owned by publisher Reach plc. It was first ...
'', in his review of the original 2000 production, "blood from a severed arm sprayed over my lap. A human liver slopped to the floor by my feet. An eyeball scudded past, then a tongue." In 2012, the trilogy was staged at
Shakespeare's Globe Shakespeare's Globe is a reconstruction of the Globe Theatre, an Elizabethan playhouse first built in 1599 for which William Shakespeare wrote his plays. Like the original, it is located on the south bank of the River Thames, in Southwark, Lon ...
as part of the Globe to Globe Festival, with each play performed by a different
Balkans The Balkans ( , ), corresponding partially with the Balkan Peninsula, is a geographical area in southeastern Europe with various geographical and historical definitions. The region takes its name from the Balkan Mountains that stretch throug ...
based company and offered as a commentary on the recent history of violence in that region. ''2 Henry VI'' was staged by the
National Theater of Albania The National Theatre of Albania () was the main theatre in Tirana, Albania. In March 2020, the National Theatre of Albania was selected by Europa Nostra among the 7 most endangered monuments in Europe, as an exceptional example of modern Italia ...
, directed by Adonis Filipi, and starring Indrit Çobani as Henry, Ermina Hysaj as Margaret, Vasjan Lami as York and Kristaq Skrami as Gloucester. In 2013, Nick Bagnall directed another production of the trilogy at the Globe. All three plays were performed each day, beginning at midday, under the overall title ''Henry VI: Three Plays''. ''2 Henry VI'' was performed under the title ''Henry VI: The Houses of York and Lancaster''. Each of the plays was edited down to two hours, and the entire trilogy was performed with a cast of fourteen actors. On several specific dates, the plays were performed at the actual locations where some of the original events took place and
streamed Streaming media refers to multimedia delivered through a network for playback using a media player. Media is transferred in a ''stream'' of packets from a server to a client and is rendered in real-time; this contrasts with file downloadin ...
live to the theatre; "battlefield productions" were staged at
Towton Towton is a small village and civil parish in the county of North Yorkshire, England. It was historically part of the West Riding of Yorkshire until 1974. From 1974 to 2023 it was part of the district of Selby, it is now administered by the u ...
(
Battle of Towton The Battle of Towton took place on 29 March 1461 during the Wars of the Roses, near Towton in North Yorkshire, and "has the dubious distinction of being probably the largest and bloodiest battle on English soil". Fought for ten hours between a ...
from ''3 Henry VI''),
Tewkesbury Tewkesbury ( ) is a market town and civil parish in the north of Gloucestershire, England. The town grew following the construction of Tewkesbury Abbey in the twelfth century and played a significant role in the Wars of the Roses. It stands at ...
(
Battle of Tewkesbury The Battle of Tewkesbury, which took place on Saturday 4 May 1471, was one of the most decisive battles of the Wars of the Roses in England. King Edward IV and his forces loyal to the House of York completely defeated those of the rival Hou ...
from ''3 Henry VI''),
St Albans Cathedral St Albans Cathedral, officially the Cathedral and Abbey Church of St Alban, also known as "the Abbey", is a Church of England cathedral in St Albans, England. Much of its architecture dates from Normans, Norman times. It ceased to be an abb ...
(
First Battle of St Albans The First Battle of St Albans took place on 22 May, 1455, at St Albans, 22 miles (35 km) north of London, and traditionally marks the beginning of the Wars of the Roses in England. Richard, Duke of York, and his allies, the Neville Earls ...
from ''2 Henry VI'' and
Second Battle of St Albans The Second Battle of St Albans was fought on 17 February 1461 during the Wars of the Roses in St Albans, Hertfordshire, England (the First Battle of St Albans had been fought in 1455). The army of the Yorkist faction, under the Earl of War ...
from ''3 Henry VI''), and
Monken Hadley Common Monken Hadley Common lies within the Monken Hadley Conservation Area, and is listed as a “Site of Nature Conservation Interest, Site of Borough Importance for Nature Conservation, Grade I,” by the London Borough of Barnet. It is registered c ...
(
Battle of Barnet The Battle of Barnet was a decisive engagement in the Wars of the Roses, a War of succession, dynastic conflict of England in the Middle Ages, 15th-century England. The military action, along with the subsequent Battle of Tewkesbury, secured t ...
from ''3 Henry VI''). The production starred Graham Butler as Henry, Mary Doherty as Margaret, Brendan O'Hea as York and
Garry Cooper Garry Cooper (born 2 June 1955) is an English actor. He was born in Hull, East Yorkshire, on 2 June 1955. Garry trained at Drama Centre, London and has worked extensively in film, television and theatre. Filmography References External ...
as Gloucester. The first major American performance was in 1935 at the
Pasadena Playhouse Pasadena Playhouse is a Tony Award-winning historic performing arts venue located 39 S. El Molino Avenue in Pasadena, California. The 686-seat auditorium produces a variety of cultural and artistic events, professional shows, and community engag ...
in California, directed by Gilmore Brown, as part of a production of all ten Shakespearean histories (the two tetralogies, preceded by '' King John'' and succeeded by ''
Henry VIII Henry VIII (28 June 149128 January 1547) was King of England from 22 April 1509 until his death in 1547. Henry is known for his Wives of Henry VIII, six marriages and his efforts to have his first marriage (to Catherine of Aragon) annulled. ...
''). In Europe, unedited stagings of the play took place at the Weimar Court Theatre in 1857. Directed by
Franz von Dingelstedt Franz von Dingelstedt (30 June 1814 – 15 May 1881) was a German poet, dramatist and theatre administrator. Life and career Dingestedt was born at Halsdorf, Hesse-Kassel (or Hesse-Cassel), Germany, and later studied at the University of Marbur ...
, it was performed as the sixth part of the octology, with all eight plays staged over a ten-day period. A major production was staged at the
Burgtheater The Burgtheater (; literally: "Castle Theater" but alternatively translated as "(Imperial) Court Theater", originally known as '' K.K. Theater an der Burg'', then until 1918 as the ''K.K. Hofburgtheater'', is the national theater of Austria in ...
in Vienna in 1873, with a celebrated performance from Friedrich Mitterwurzer as Winchester. Jocza Savits directed a production of the tetralogy at the Munich Court Theatre in 1889 and again in 1906. In 1927, Saladin Schmitt presented the unedited octology at the
Municipal Theatre A municipal theatre is a theatre that is public sector, publicly owned. By contrast with a state theatre, such as the ''Landesbühnen'' of Germany and Austria, a municipal theatre is not financed by the state, but by the town or city in which it is ...
in
Bochum Bochum (, ; ; ; ) is a city in North Rhine-Westphalia. With a population of 372,348 (April 2023), it is the sixth-largest city (after Cologne, Düsseldorf, Dortmund, Essen and Duisburg) in North Rhine-Westphalia, the most populous German federa ...
. Denis Llorca staged the tetralogy as one twelve-hour piece in
Carcassonne Carcassonne is a French defensive wall, fortified city in the Departments of France, department of Aude, Regions of France, region of Occitania (administrative region), Occitania. It is the prefectures in France, prefecture of the department. ...
in 1978 and in
Créteil Créteil () is a Communes of France, commune in the southeastern suburbs of Paris, Île-de-France. It is located from the Kilometre Zero, centre of Paris. Créteil is the ''préfecture'' (capital) of the Val-de-Marne Departments of France, dep ...
in 1979. In 1999, director Ruediger Burbach presented ''2 Henry VI'' and ''3 Henry VI'' at the Zurich Playhouse. This production was unique insofar as a woman (Katharina Schmoelzer) played Henry. Margaret was played by Katharina von Bock.


Adaptations


Theatrical

Evidence for the first adaptation of ''2 Henry VI'' is found during the Restoration, when, in 1681,
John Crowne John Crowne (6 April 1641 – 1712) was a British dramatist. His father "Colonel" William Crowne, accompanied the earl of Arundel on a diplomatic mission to Vienna in 1637, and wrote an account of his journey. He emigrated to Nova Scotia where ...
created a two-part play entitled ''Henry the Sixth, The First Part'' and ''The Misery of Civil War''. ''Henry'' comprised Acts 1–3 of ''2 Henry VI'' focusing on the death of Gloucester, ''Misery'' adapted the last two acts of ''2 Henry VI'' and much of ''3 Henry VI''. Writing at the time of
Popish Plot The Popish Plot was a fictitious conspiracy invented by Titus Oates that between 1678 and 1681 gripped the kingdoms of England and Scotland in anti-Catholic hysteria. Oates alleged that there was an extensive Catholic conspiracy to assassinat ...
, Crowne, who was a devout
royalist A royalist supports a particular monarch as head of state for a particular kingdom, or of a particular dynastic claim. In the abstract, this position is royalism. It is distinct from monarchism, which advocates a monarchical system of gove ...
, used his adaptation to warn about the danger of allowing England to descend into another civil war, which would be the case should the Whig party rise to power. As such, the scenes of Jack Cade's rebellion, as depicted in ''Misery'', were much more violent than in Shakespeare, with painted backdrops of people on fire and children impaled on pikes. Crowne also rewrote the roles of Gloucester and Winchester to make Gloucester more saint-like and taintless, and Winchester even more villainous. He also linked the murder of Gloucester to the recent assassination of
Edmund Berry Godfrey Sir Edmund Berry Godfrey (23 December 1621 – 12 October 1678) was an English magistrate whose mysterious death caused anti-Catholic uproar in England. Contemporary documents also spell the name Edmundbury Godfrey. Early life Edmund Berry God ...
, an incident which had led to an outbreak of anti-Catholic hysteria in London in 1678. By creating this link, Crowne was aiming to enhance anti-Catholic sentiment even more and ensure the passing of the
Exclusion Bill The Exclusion Crisis ran from 1679 until 1681 in the reign of King Charles II of England, Scotland and Ireland. Three Exclusion Bills sought to exclude the King's brother and heir presumptive, James, Duke of York, from the thrones of England, S ...
, which would prevent the Catholic
James Stuart, Duke of York James II and VII (14 October 1633 – 16 September 1701) was King of England and Ireland as James II and King of Scotland as James VII from the death of his elder brother, Charles II, on 6 February 1685, until he was deposed in the 1688 Glori ...
succeeding his brother, the Protestant Charles II. To this end, Crowne rewrote the murder scene to give more characterisation to the three murderers, who were depicted as devout, but cold-blooded Catholics. Two more adaptations followed in 1723. The first was ''Humfrey Duke of Gloucester'' by
Ambrose Philips Ambrose Philips (167418 June 1749) was an England, English poet and politician. He feuded with other poets of his time, resulting in Henry Carey (writer), Henry Carey bestowing the nickname "Namby-Pamby" upon him, which came to mean affected, wea ...
, which used about thirty lines from Acts 1–3 of ''2 Henry VI'' and was performed at
Drury Lane Drury Lane is a street on the boundary between the Covent Garden and Holborn areas of London, running between Aldwych and High Holborn. The northern part is in the borough of London Borough of Camden, Camden and the southern part in the City o ...
. In a possible comment on the politics of Crowne's adaptation, Phillips dedicated his version to
William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath William Pulteney, 1st Earl of Bath, (22 March 16847 July 1764) was an English Whigs (British political party), Whig politician and peer who sat in the House of Commons of Great Britain, British House of Commons from 1707 to 1742 when he was r ...
, a leading Whig politician. The second 1723 adaptation, also performed at Drury Lane, was
Theophilus Cibber Theophilus Cibber (25 or 26 November 1703 – October 1758) was an English actor, playwright, author, and son of the actor-manager Colley Cibber. He began acting at an early age, and followed his father into theatrical management. In 1727, Alex ...
's ''King Henry VI: A Tragedy'', which used Act 5 of ''2 Henry VI'' and Acts 1 and 2 of ''3 Henry VI'', and which featured his father
Colley Cibber Colley Cibber (6 November 1671 – 11 December 1757) was an English actor-manager, playwright and Poet Laureate of the United Kingdom, Poet Laureate. His colourful memoir ''An Apology for the Life of Colley Cibber'' (1740) describes his life in ...
as Winchester. In 1817,
Edmund Kean Edmund Kean (4 November 178715 May 1833) was a British Shakespearean actor, who performed, among other places, in London, Belfast, New York, Quebec, and Paris. He was known for his short stature, tumultuous personal life, and controversial div ...
appeared in J.H. Merivale's ''Richard Duke of York; or the Contention of York and Lancaster'', which used material from all three ''Henry VI'' plays, but removed everything not directly related to York. Material from ''2 Henry VI'' included the lamentation about the loss of Anjou and Maine, the conflict between Gloucester and Winchester, the murder of Gloucester, the death of Winchester (where all Warwick's dialogue is reassigned to York), and Cade's rebellion. Following Merivale's example, Robert Atkins adapted all three plays into a single piece for a performance at
The Old Vic The Old Vic is a 1,000-seat, nonprofit producing theatre in Waterloo, London, England. It was established in 1818 as the Royal Coburg Theatre, and renamed in 1833 the Royal Victoria Theatre. In 1871 it was rebuilt and reopened as the Royal ...
in 1923 as part of the celebrations for the tercentenary of the ''First Folio''. Guy Martineau played Henry and Esther Whitehouse played Margaret. Atkins himself played York. The success of the 1951–1953 Douglas Seale stand-alone productions of each of the individual plays in Birmingham prompted him to present the three plays together at the Old Vic in 1957 under the general title ''The Wars of the Roses''. Barry Jackson adapted the text, altering the trilogy into a two-part play; ''1 Henry VI'' and ''2 Henry VI'' were combined (with almost all of ''1 Henry VI'' eliminated) and ''3 Henry VI'' was edited down. Seale again directed, with Paul Daneman again appearing as Henry and Alfred Burke as Gloucester, alongside
Barbara Jefford Barbara Mary Jefford, OBE (26 July 1930 – 12 September 2020) was a British actress, best known for her theatrical performances with the Royal Shakespeare Company, the Old Vic and the National Theatre and her role as Molly Bloom in the 1967 ...
as Margaret and
Derek Godfrey Derek Godfrey (3 June 1924 – 18 June 1983) was an English actor, associated with the Royal Shakespeare Company from 1960, who also appeared in several films and BBC television dramatisations during the 1960s and 1970s. Born in London, he perfor ...
as York. The production which is usually credited with establishing the reputation of the play in the modern theatre is John Barton and Peter Hall's 1963/1964 RSC production of the tetralogy, adapted into a three-part series, under the general title ''
The Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses, known at the time and in following centuries as the Civil Wars, were a series of armed confrontations, machinations, battles and campaigns fought over control of the English throne from 1455 to 1487. The conflict was f ...
'', at the Royal Shakespeare Theatre. The first play (entitled simply ''Henry VI'') featured a much shortened version of ''1 Henry VI'' and half of ''2 Henry VI'' (up to the death of Beaufort). The second play (entitled ''Edward IV'') featured the second half of ''2 Henry VI'' and a shortened version of ''3 Henry VI'', which was then followed by a shortened version of ''Richard III'' as the third play. In all, 1,450 lines written by Barton were added to 6,000 lines of original Shakespearean material, with a total of 12,350 lines removed. The production starred David Warner (actor), David Warner as Henry, Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret, Donald Sinden as York and Paul Hardwick as Gloucester. Barton and Hall were both especially concerned that the plays reflect the contemporary political environment, with the civil chaos and breakdown of society depicted in the plays mirrored in the contemporary ''milieu'', by events such as the building of the Berlin Wall in 1961, the Cuban Missile Crisis in 1962 and the assassination of John F. Kennedy in 1963. The directors allowed these events to reflect themselves in the production, arguing that "we live among war, race riots, revolutions, assassinations, and the imminent threat of extinction. The theatre is, therefore, examining fundamentals in staging the ''Henry VI'' plays." They were also influenced by politically focused literary theory of the time; both had attended the 1956 London visit of Bertolt Brecht's Berliner Ensemble, both were subscribers to Antonin Artaud's theory of "Theatre of Cruelty", and Hall had read an English translation of Jan Kott's influential ''Shakespeare Our Contemporary'' in 1964 prior to its publication in Britain. Both Barton and Hall were also supporters of E. M. W. Tillyard, E.M.W. Tillyard's 1944 book ''Shakespeare's History Plays'', which was still a hugely influential text in Shakespearian scholarship, especially in terms of its argument that Shakespeare in the tetraology was advancing the Tudor myth. Another major adaptation was staged in 1987 by the English Shakespeare Company, under the direction of Michael Bogdanov. This touring production opened at the Old Vic, and subsequently toured for two years, performing at, amongst other places, the Panasonic Globe Theatre in Tokyo, Japan (as the inaugural play of the arena), the Festival dei Due Mondi in Spoleto, Italy and at the Adelaide Festival in Adelaide, Australia. Following the structure established by Barton and Hall, Bogdanov combined a heavily edited ''1 Henry VI'' and the first half of ''2 Henry VI'' into one play (''Henry VI''), and the second half of ''2 Henry VI'' and ''3 Henry VI'' into another (''Edward IV''), and followed them with an edited ''Richard III''. Also like Barton and Hall, Bogdanov concentrated on political issues, although he made them far more overt than had his predecessors. For example, played by June Watson, Margaret was closely modelled after the British Prime Minister at the time, Margaret Thatcher, even to the point of having similar clothes and hair. Likewise, Paul Brennan (actor), Paul Brennan's Henry was closely modelled after King Edward VIII, before his abdication. Jack Cade, played by Michael Pennington was presented as a punk with spiked hair and wearing a shirt depicting a Union Jack with a white rose in the middle, and during the Cade rebellion, football hooligan chants were heard. Indeed, the Cade rebellion in general was modelled on the National Front (United Kingdom), National Front. Bogdanov also employed frequent anachronisms and contemporary visual registers, in an effort to show the relevance of the politics to the contemporary period. The production was noted for its pessimism as regards contemporary British politics, with some critics feeling the political resonances were too heavy handed. However, the series was a huge box office success. Alongside Watson and Brennen, the play starred Barry Stanton (actor), Barry Stanton as York and Colin Farrell (British actor), Colin Farrell as Gloucester. Another adaptation of the tetralogy by the Royal Shakespeare Company followed in 1988, performed at the Barbican Centre, Barbican. Adapted by Charles Wood (playwright), Charles Wood and directed by Adrian Noble, the Barton/Hall structure was again followed, reducing the trilogy to two plays by dividing ''2 Henry VI'' in the middle. The resulting trilogy was entitled ''The Plantagenets'', with the individual plays entitled ''Henry VI'', ''The Rise of Edward IV'' and ''Richard III, His Death''. Starring Ralph Fiennes as Henry, Penny Downie as Margaret, Anton Lesser as York and David Waller as Gloucester, the production was extremely successful with both audiences and critics. Michael Bogdanov and the English Shakespeare Company presented a different adaptation at the Swansea Grand Theatre in 1991, using the same cast as on the touring production. All eight plays from the history cycle were presented over a seven night period, with each play receiving one performance only, and with only twenty eight actors portraying the nearly five hundred roles. Whilst the other five plays in the cycle were unadapted, the ''Henry VI'' plays were combined into two, using the Barton/Hall structure, with the first named ''The House of Lancaster'' and the second, ''The House of York''. In 2000, Edward Hall (director), Edward Hall presented the trilogy as a two-part series at the Watermill Theatre in Newbury, Berkshire, Newbury. Hall followed the Jackson/Seale structure, combining ''1 Henry VI'' and ''2 Henry VI'' into one play which all but eliminated ''1 Henry VI'' and following this with an edited version of ''3 Henry VI''. This production was noted for how it handled the violence of the play. The set was designed to look like an abattoir, but rather than attempt to present the violence realistically (as most productions do), Hall went in the other direction; presenting the violence symbolically. Whenever a character was decapitated or killed, a red cabbage was sliced up whilst the actor mimed the death beside it. In 2001, Tom Markus directed an adaptation of the tetralogy at the Colorado Shakespeare Festival. Condensing all fours plays into one, Markus named the play ''Queen Margaret'', doing much the same with the character of Margaret as Merivale had done with York. Margaret was played by Gloria Biegler, Henry by Richard Haratine, York by Lars Tatom and Gloucester by Charles Wilcox. Another unusual 2001 adaptation of the tetralogy was entitled ''Shakespeare's Rugby Wars''. Written by Matt Toner and Chris Coculuzzi, and directed by Coculuzzi, the play was acted by the Upstart Crow Theatre Group and staged outdoors at the Robert Street Playing Field as part of the Toronto Fringe Festival. Presented as if it were a live rugby match between York and Lancaster, the 'play' featured commentary from Falstaff (Stephen Flett), which was broadcast live for the audience. The 'match' itself was refereed by 'Bill Shakespeare' (played by Coculuzzi), and the actors (whose characters names all appeared on their jerseys) had microphones attached and would recite dialogue from all four plays at key moments. In 2002, Leon Rubin presented the tetralogy as a trilogy at the Stratford Shakespeare Festival in Ontario. Using the Barton/Hall method of combining ''1 Henry VI'' with the first half of ''2 Henry VI'', and the second half of ''2 Henry VI'' with ''3 Henry VI'', the plays were renamed ''Henry VI: Revenge in France'' and ''Henry VI: Revolt in England''. Michael Thierry played Henry, Seana McKenna played Margaret, Thom Marriott played York and David Francis played Gloucester. Also in 2002, Edward Hall and the Propeller (theatre company), Propeller Company presented a one-play all-male cast modern dress adaptation of the trilogy at the Watermill Theatre. Under the title ''Rose Rage'', Hall used a cast of only thirteen actors to portray the nearly 150 speaking roles in the four-hour production, thus necessitating doubling and tripling of parts. Although a new adaptation, this production followed the Jackson/Seale method of eliminating almost all of ''1 Henry VI''. The original cast included Jonathan McGuinness as Henry, Robert Hands as Margaret, Guy Williams (actor), Guy Williams as York and Richard Clothier as Gloucester. After a successful run at the Watermill, the play moved to the Chicago Shakespeare Theater. The American cast included Carman Lacivita as Henry, Scott Parkinson as Margaret, Bruce A. Young as York and Sean Fortunato as Gloucester. Outside England, a major European adaptation of the tetralogy took place in 1864 in Weimar under the direction of Franz von Dingelstedt, who, seven years previously had staged the play unedited. Dingelstedt turned the trilogy into a two-parter under the general name ''Die weisse rose''. The first play was called ''Haus Lancaster'', the second ''Haus York''. This adaptation was unique insofar as both plays were created by combining material from all three ''Henry VI'' plays. Following this structure, Alfred von Walzogen also produced a two-part play in 1875, under the general title ''Edward IV''. Another European adaptation was in 1965 at the Piccolo Teatro (Milan), Piccolo Teatro in Milan. Directed by Giorgio Strehler it went under the title ''Il gioco del potenti'' (''The Play of the Mighty''). Using Barton and Hall's structure, Strehler also added several characters, including a Chorus, who used monologues from ''Richard II'', both parts of ''Henry IV'', ''Henry V'', ''Macbeth'' and ''Timon of Athens'', and two gravediggers called Bevis and Holland (after the names of two of Cade's rebels in the Folio text), who commented (with dialogue written by Strehler himself) on each of the major characters as they set about burying them. A major German adaptation was Peter Palitzsch's two-part adaptation of the trilogy as ''Rosenkriege'' in 1967 at the Staatstheater Stuttgart, Stuttgart State Theatre. Condensing the three plays into two, ''Heinrich VI'' and ''Eduard IV'', Palitzsch's adaptation concluded with the opening monologue from ''Richard III''.


Television

The first television adaptation of the play was in 1960 when the BBC produced a serial entitled ''An Age of Kings''. The show comprised fifteen sixty- and seventy-five-minute episodes which adapted all eight of Shakespeare's sequential history plays. Directed by Michael Hayes (director), Michael Hayes and produced by Peter Dews (director), Peter Dews, with a script by Eric Crozier, the production featured Terry Scully as Henry, Mary Morris as Margaret, Jack May as York and John Ringham as Gloucester. The tenth episode, An Age of Kings#"Henry VI: The Fall of a Protector", "The Fall of a Protector" covers Acts 1, 2 and Act 3, Scene 1, ending with York's soliloquy regarding the fact that he now has troops at his disposal and his revelation of his plans to use Jack Cade to instigate a popular rebellion. The eleventh episode, An Age of Kings#"Henry VI: The Rabble from Kent", "The Rabble from Kent", presents everything from Act 3, Scene 2 onwards, beginning with the death of Humphrey. With each episode running one hour, a great deal of text was necessarily removed, but aside from truncation, only minor alterations were made to the original. For example, in "The Fall of a Protector", Peter Thump does not kill Thomas Horner during the combat; he compels him to confess by sitting on him, and Horner is promptly arrested. In "The Rabble from Kent", we see the murder of Gloucester, whereas in the text, it happens off-stage. Also worth noting is that the characters of both George Plantagenet, 1st Duke of Clarence, George Plantagenet and Edmund, Earl of Rutland are introduced just prior to the Battle of St Albans, whereas in the text, neither character is introduced until ''3 Henry VI'' (Edmund in Act 1, Scene 3; George in Act 2, Scene 2). Additionally, Edmund is played by an adult actor, whereas in the text, he is a child. In 1965, BBC 1 broadcast all three plays from John Barton and Peter Hall's ''The Wars of the Roses'' trilogy (''Henry VI'', ''The Rise of Edward IV'' and ''Richard III'') with David Warner as Henry and Peggy Ashcroft as Margaret. Directed for television by Robin Midgley and Michael Hayes (director), Michael Hayes, the plays were presented as more than simply filmed theatre, with the core idea being "to recreate theatre production in televisual terms—not merely to observe it, but to get to the heart of it." Filming was done on the RSC stage, but not during actual performances, thus allowing cameras to get close to the actors, and cameramen with hand-held cameras to shoot battle scenes. Additionally, camera platforms were created around the theatre. In all, twelve cameras were used, allowing the final product to be edited more like a film than a piece of static filmed theatre. Filming was done following the 1964 run of the plays at Stratford-upon-Avon, and took place over an eight-week period, with 52 BBC staff working alongside 84 RSC staff to bring the project to fruition. In 1966, the production was repeated on BBC 1 where it was re-edited into eleven episodes of 50 minutes each. The second episode, The Wars of the Roses (adaptation)#"Margaret of Anjou", "Margaret of Anjou", presented ''1 Henry VI'' from Act 4, Scene 2 onwards, beginning with Talbot confronting the French general at Harfleur (Bordeaux in the play), as well as the first half of Act 1, Scene 1 of ''2 Henry VI'' (concluding with Henry and Margaret departing from the court). The third episode, The Wars of the Roses (adaptation)#"The Lord Protector", "The Lord Protector" covered Acts 1, 2 and Act 3, Scene 1 of ''2 Henry VI'', ending with York's soliloquy regarding the fact that he now has troops at his disposal and his revelation of his plans to use Jack Cade to instigate a popular rebellion. The fourth episode, The Wars of the Roses (adaptation)#"The Council Board", "The Council Board", presented Act 3, Scene 2 up to Act 4, Scene 8, concluding with Jack Cade's forces abandoning him. The fifth episode, The Wars of the Roses (adaptation)#"The Fearful King", "The Fearful King", presented the rest of ''2 Henry VI'' (beginning with Henry pardoning Cade's rebels) as well as ''3 Henry VI'' Act 1 and Act 2, Scene 1, concluding with Warwick rallying Edward, Richard and George after their father's death. Another BBC Television Shakespeare#The Second Part of Henry the Sixt, television version of the play was produced by the BBC in 1981 for their ''BBC Television Shakespeare'' series, although the episode did not air until 1983. Directed by Jane Howell, the play was presented as the second part of the tetralogy (all four adaptations directed by Howell) with linked casting; Henry was played by Peter Benson (actor), Peter Benson, Margaret by Julia Foster, York by Bernard Hill and Gloucester by David Burke (British actor), David Burke. Howell's presentation of the complete first historical tetralogy was one of the most lauded achievements of the entire BBC series, and prompted
Stanley Wells Sir Stanley William Wells, (born 21 May 1930) is an English Shakespearean scholar, writer, professor and editor who has been honorary president of the Shakespeare Birthplace Trust, professor emeritus at Birmingham University, and author of many ...
to argue that the productions were "probably purer than any version given in the theatre since Shakespeare's time."Stanley Wells, "The History of the Whole Contention", ''The Times Literary Supplement'' (4 February 1983) Michael Mannheim was similarly impressed, calling the tetralogy "a fascinating, fast-paced and surprisingly tight-knit study in political and national deterioration." Inspired by the notion that the political intrigues behind the
Wars of the Roses The Wars of the Roses, known at the time and in following centuries as the Civil Wars, were a series of armed confrontations, machinations, battles and campaigns fought over control of the English throne from 1455 to 1487. The conflict was fo ...
often seemed like playground squabbles, Howell and production designer Oliver Bayldon staged the four plays in a single set resembling a children's adventure playground. However, little attempt was made at realism. For example, Bayldon did not disguise the parquet flooring ("it stops the set from literally representing ..it reminds us we are in a modern television studio"), and in all four productions, the title of the play is displayed within the set itself (on banners in ''1 Henry VI'' and ''2 Henry VI'' (where it is visible throughout the entire first scene), on a shroud in ''3 Henry VI'', and written on a chalkboard by Richard himself in ''Richard III''). Many critics felt these set design choices lent the production an air of Brechtian . Stanley Wells wrote of the set that it was intended to invite the viewer to "accept the play's artificiality of language and action," Michael Hattaway describes it as "anti-illusionist," Susan Willis argues that the set allows the productions "to reach theatrically toward the modern world" and Ronald Knowles writes "a major aspect of the set was the subliminal suggestion of childlike anarchy, role-playing, rivalry, game and vandalism, as if all culture were precariously balanced on the shaky foundations of atavistic aggression and power-mad possession." As the four plays progressed, the set decayed and became more and more dilapidated as social order became more fractious. In the same vein, the costumes became more and more monotone as the plays went on—''The First Part of Henry the Sixt'' features brightly coloured costumes which clearly distinguish the various combatants from one another, but by ''The Tragedy of Richard III'', everyone fights in similarly coloured dark costumes, with little to differentiate one army from another. Another element of in this production is the use of doubling, particularly the use of the actors David Burke and Trevor Peacock. Burke plays Henry's closest advisor and most loyal servant, Gloucester, and after Gloucester's death, he plays Jack Cade's right-hand man, Dick the Butcher. Peacock plays Cade himself, having previously appeared in ''The First Part of Henry the Sixt'' as John Talbot, 1st Earl of Shrewsbury, Lord Talbot, representative of chivalry. Both actors play complete inversions of their previous characters, re-creating both an authentically Elizabethan theatrical practice and a Breachtian political commentary. Graham Holderness saw Howell's non-naturalistic production as something of a reaction to the BBC's adaptation of the ''Henriad'' in seasons one and two, which had been directed by David Giles (director), David Giles in the traditional and straightforward manner favoured by then series producer Cedric Messina; "where Messina saw the history plays conventionally as orthodox Tudor historiography, and [David Giles] employed dramatic techniques which allow that ideology a free and unhampered passage to the spectator, Jane Howell takes a more complex view of the first tetralogy as, simultaneously, a serious attempt at historical interpretation, and as a drama with a peculiarly modern relevance and contemporary application. The plays, to this director, are not a dramatisation of the Elizabethan World Picture but a sustained interrogation of residual and emergent ideologies in a changing society ..This awareness of the multiplicity of potential meanings in the play required a decisive and scrupulous avoidance of television or theatrical naturalism: methods of production should operate to open the plays out, rather than close them into the immediately recognisable familiarity of conventional Shakespearean production." Howell's ''The Second Part of Henry the Sixt'' was based on the folio text rather than the quarto; however, it departed from that text in a number of places. For example, numerous lines were cut from almost every scene. Some of the more notable omissions include: in Act 1, Scene 1, both of Gloucester's references to John of Lancaster, 1st Duke of Bedford, Bedford are absent (ll. 82–83, 95–96), as is the reference to Suffolk's demands that he be paid for escorting Margaret from France (ll. 131–133), and York's allusion to Althaea (mythology), Althaea and Calydon in his closing soliloquy (ll.231–235). Absent in Act 2, Scene 1 is Gloucester's question to Winchester "Is your priesthood grown peremptory? ''Tantaene animis caelestibus irae''?" (ll.23–24), as are lines 173–180, where Winchester taunts Gloucester about Eleanor's arrest and Gloucester calls off their duel. York's outline of Edward III's seven sons is absent from Act 2, Scene 2 (ll.10–17), as is Salisbury's reference to Owen Glendower (l.41). Suffolk's accusation that Gloucester was involved in necromancy with Eleanor is omitted from Act 3, Scene 1 (ll.47–53), as is Gloucester's outline of how he dealt with criminals during his time as Protector (ll.128–132). Also absent from 3.1 are the comments by Winchester, Suffolk and Margaret after Gloucester accuses them of conspiring to bring him down (ll.172–185), and York's references to how he fought alongside Cade in Ireland (ll.360–370). In Act 4, Scene 1, all references to Walter Whitmore's name as Gualtier are absent (ll.38–39). The entirety of Act 4, Scene 5 (a brief scene showing Scales and Gough on patrol at the Tower of London) is absent. In Act 5, Scene 1, some of the dialogue between Clifford and Warwick is absent (ll.200–210). However, there were also some additions to the text, most noticeably some lines from ''The Contention'', such as in Act 1, Scene 1, where two lines are added to Salisbury's vow to support York if he can prove he is a legitimate heir to the crown. Between lines 197 and 198 is added "The reverence of mine age and the Neville's name/Is of no little force if I command." In Act 1, Scene 3, two lines are added to the conversation between Margaret and Thump between lines 31 and 32, where Thump mistakes the word 'usurper' for 'usurer" and is corrected by Margaret. Another example is found in Act 2, Scene 1, where the extended conversation between Gloucester and Winchester in which Gloucester says Winchester was born "in bastardy" is included. Other changes include the transferral of lines to characters other than those who speak them in the Folio text. The most notable of these is 1.3.211 where Gloucester's line "This is the law, and this Duke Gloucester's doom" is given to Henry. Additionally, in Act 1, Scene 4, during the conjuration, there is no separate spirit in the scene; all the spirit's dialogue is spoken 'through' Jourdayne, and her lines from the Folio are omitted. Also, later in the scene, it is Buckingham who reads the prophecies, not York. In Act 4, Scene 1, the second half of line 139 ("Pompey the Great, and Suffolk dies by pirates") is spoken by the Lieutenant, not Suffolk. Another notable stylistic technique is that the soliloquies of York in Act 1, Scene 1 and Act 3, Scene 1, as well as those of Eleanor and Hum in Act 1, Scene 2, and York's asides in Act 1, Scene 1 and Act 3, Scene 1 are all delivered direct to camera, as is the Dick the Butcher's comments in Act 4, Scene 2, as Cade delivers his speech to the masses. Also worth noting is that the character of George Plantagenet is introduced just prior to the Battle of St Albans, whereas in the text, he is not introduced until ''3 Henry VI'', Act 2, Scene 2. Additionally, Buckingham is killed onscreen whereas in the play, his fate is unknown, only revealed in the opening lines of ''3 Henry VI'' to have been killed by Edward. In 1964, Austrian channel ORF 2 presented an adaptation of the trilogy by Leopold Lindtberg under the title ''Heinrich VI''. The cast list from this production has been lost. In 1969, German channel ZDF presented a filmed version of the first part of Peter Palitzsch's 1967 two-part adaptation of the trilogy in Stuttgart, ''Heinrich VI: Der Krieg der Rosen 1''. The second part, ''Eduard IV: Der Krieg der Rosen 2'', was screened in 1971.


Radio

In 1923, extracts from all three ''Henry VI'' plays were broadcast on BBC Radio, performed by the Cardiff Station Repertory Company as the third episode of a series of programs showcasing Shakespeare's plays, entitled ''Shakespeare Night''. In 1947, BBC Third Programme aired a one-hundred-and-fifty-minute adaptation of the trilogy as part of their ''Shakespeare's Historical Plays'' series, a six-part adaptation of the eight sequential history plays, with linked casting. Adapted by Maurice Roy Ridley, ''King Henry VI'' starred John Bryon as Henry, Gladys Young as Margaret, Richard Williams as York and Baliol Holloway as Gloucester. In 1952, Third Programme aired an adaptation of the tetralogy by Peter Watts (critic), Peter Watts and John Dover Wilson under the general name ''The Wars of the Roses''. The tetralogy was adapted into a trilogy but in an unusual way. ''1 Henry VI'' was simply removed, so the trilogy contained only ''2 Henry VI'', ''3 Henry VI'' and ''Richard III''. The reason for this was explained by Dover Wilson, who argued that ''1 Henry VI'' is "patchwork in which Shakespeare collaborated with inferior dramatists." The adaptation starred Valentine Dyall as Henry, Sonia Dresdel as Margaret, Stephen Jack as York and Gordon McLeod (actor), Gordon McLeod as Gloucester. In 1971, BBC Radio 3 presented a two-part adaptation of the trilogy by Raymond Raikes. Part 1 contained an abridged ''1 Henry VI'' and an abridged version of the first three acts of ''2 Henry VI''. Part 2 presented Acts 4 and 5 and an abridged ''3 Henry VI''. Nigel Lambert played Henry, Barbara Jefford played Margaret and Ian McKellen played both York and Richard III. In 1977, BBC Radio 4 presented a 26-part serialisation of the eight sequential history plays under the general title ''Vivat Rex'' (''Long live the King''). Adapted by Martin Jenkins as part of the celebration of the Silver Jubilee of Elizabeth II, ''2 Henry VI'' comprised episodes 17 ("Witchcraft") and 18 ("Jack Cade"). James Laurenson played Henry, Peggy Ashcroft played Margaret, Peter Jeffrey played York and Richard Burton narrated. In America, in 1936, a heavily edited adaptation of the trilogy was broadcast as part of NBC Blue's ''Radio Guild'' series. Comprising three 60-minute episodes aired a week apart, the adaptation was written by Vernon Radcliffe and starred Henry Herbert (actor), Henry Herbert as Henry, and Janet Nolan as Margaret. In 1954, CBC Radio presented an adaptation of the trilogy by Andrew Allen, who combined ''1 Henry VI'', ''2 Henry VI'' and ''3 Henry VI'' into a 160-minute episode. There is no known cast information for this production. In 1985, German radio channel Sender Freies Berlin broadcast a heavily edited 76-minute two-part adaptation of the octology adapted by Rolf Schneider, under the title ''Shakespeare's Rosenkriege''.


Manga

Aya Kanno's Japanese manga comic ''Requiem of the Rose King'' is a loose adaptation of the first Shakespearean historical tetralogy, covering ''Henry VI'' and ''Richard III''.


See also

* List of idioms attributed to Shakespeare


References


Notes


Citations

All references to ''Henry VI, Part 2'', unless otherwise specified, are taken from the ''Oxford Shakespeare'' (Warren), based on the First Folio text of 1623. Under its referencing system, 4.3.15 means act 4, scene 3, line 15.


Editions of ''Henry VI, Part 2''

* Bate, Jonathan, and Rasmussen, Eric (eds.). ''Henry VI, Parts I, II and III'' (The RSC Shakespeare; London: Macmillan, 2012) * Andrew Cairncross, Cairncross, Andrew S. (ed.). ''King Henry VI, Part 2'' (The Arden Shakespeare, 2nd Series; London: Arden, 1957) * J. Dover Wilson, Dover Wilson, John (ed.). ''The Second Part of Henry VI'' (The New Shakespeare; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1952) * G. Blakemore Evans, Evans, G. Blakemore (ed.). ''The Riverside Shakespeare'' (Boston: Houghton Mifflin, 1974; 2nd edn., 1997) * Freeman, Arthur (ed.). ''Henry VI, Part Two'' (Signet Classic Shakespeare; New York: Signet, 1967; revised edition, 1989; 2nd revised edition 2005) * Greenblatt, Stephen; Cohen, Walter; Jean E. Howard, Howard, Jean E., and Maus, Katharine Eisaman (eds.). ''The Norton Shakespeare: Based on the Oxford Shakespeare'' (London: Norton, 1997; 2nd edn., 2008) * Hart, H. C., and Pooler, C. Knox (eds.). ''The Second Part of Henry the Sixt'' (The Arden Shakespeare, 1st Series; London: Arden, 1909) * Hattaway, Michael (ed.) ''The Second Part of King Henry VI'' (The New Cambridge Shakespeare; Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1991) * Knowles, Ronald (ed.). ''King Henry VI, Part 2'' (The Arden Shakespeare, 3rd Series; London: Arden, 1999) * Montgomery, William (ed.). ''The First Part of the Contention Betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster: The 'Bad Quarto' of Henry VI, Part 2'' (London: Malone Society, 1985) * . ''Henry VI Part II'' (The Pelican Shakespeare, 2nd edition; London: Penguin, 2000) * Sanders, Norman (ed.). ''Henry VI, Part Two'' (The New Penguin Shakespeare; London: Penguin, 1981) * Taylor, Michael (ed.). ''Henry VI, Part Two'' (The New Penguin Shakespeare, 2nd edition; London: Penguin, 2005) * Turner, Robert K. Jr., and Williams, George Walton (eds.). ''The Second Part of Henry the Sixth'' (The Pelican Shakespeare; London: Penguin, 1967; revised edition 1980) * Warren, Roger (ed.). ''Henry VI, Part Two'' (The Oxford Shakespeare; Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2003) * Montgomery, William, with Gary Taylor (scholar), Taylor, Gary (eds.). ''The First Part of the Contention Betwixt the Two Famous Houses of York and Lancaster'' in ''The Oxford Shakespeare: The Complete Works'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1986; 2nd edn., 2005) * Werstine, Paul, and Mowat, Barbara A. (eds.). ''Henry VI, Part 2'' (Folger Shakespeare Library; Washington: Simon & Schuster, 2008)


Secondary sources

* Peter Alexander (Shakespearean scholar), Alexander, Peter. ''Shakespeare's Henry VI and Richard III'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1929) * Berry, Edward I. ''Patterns of Decay: Shakespeare's Early Histories'' (Charlottesville: Virginia University Press, 1975) * Born, Hanspeter. "The Date of ''2'', ''3 Henry VI''", ''Shakespeare Quarterly'', 25:3 (Autumn, 1974), 323–334 * Brockbank, Philip. "The Frame of Disorder – ''Henry VI''" in John Russell Brown and Bernard Harris (editors), ''Early Shakespeare'' (London: Hodder & Stoughton, 1961), 72–99 * . "Shakespeare: His Histories, English and Roman" in Christopher Ricks (editor), ''The New History of Literature (Volume 3): English Drama to 1710'' (New York: Peter Bedrick, 1971), 148–181 * Bullough, Geoffrey. ''Narrative and Dramatic Sources of Shakespeare (Volume 3): Early English History Plays'' (Columbia: Columbia University Press, 1960) * Candido, Joseph. "Getting Loose in the ''Henry VI'' Plays", ''Shakespeare Quarterly'', 35:4 (Winter, 1984), 392–406 * Roger Chartier, Chartier, Roger. "Jack Cade, the Skin of a Dead Lamb, and the Hatred for Writing", ''Shakespeare Studies'', 34 (2006), 77–89 * Clarke, Mary. ''Shakespeare at the Old Vic, Volume 4 (1957–1958): Hamlet, King Henry VI Parts 1, 2 and 3, Measure for Measure, A Midsummer Night's Dream, King Lear, Twelfth Night'' (London: A. & C. Black, 1958) * Daniel, P. A. ''A Time Analysis of the Plots of Shakespeare's Plays'' (London: New Shakspere Society, 1879) * Dobson, Michael S. ''The Making of the National Poet: Shakespeare, Adaptation and Authorship, 1660–1769'' (Oxford, Oxford University Press, 1995) * Dockray, Keith. ''Henry VI, Margaret of Anjou and the Wars of the Roses: A Source Book'' (Stroud: Sutton Publishing, 2000) * Doran, Madeleine. ''Henry VI, Parts II and III: Their Relation to the Contention and the True Tragedy'' (Iowa: University of Iowa Press, 1928) * Duthie, G.I. ''Shakespeare'' (London: Hutchinson, 1951) * R. A. Foakes, Foakes, R. A. and Rickert R.T. (eds.) ''Henslowe's Diary'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1961; 2nd edn. edited by only Foakes, 2002) * Frey, D. L. ''The First Tetralogy: Shakespeare's Scrutiny of the Tudor Myth'' (The Hague: Mouton, 1976) * Goodwin, John. ''Royal Shakespeare Theatre Company, 1960–1963'' (London: Max Reinhardt, 1964) * Goy-Blanquet, Dominique. "Elizabethan Historiography and Shakespeare's Sources", in Michael Hattaway (editor), ''The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare's History Plays'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 57–70 * Grafton, Richard. ''A Chronicle at Large'', 1569 * W. W. Greg, Greg, W. W. "'The Bad Quartos' of ''2'' and ''3 Henry VI''", ''The Review of English Studies'', 13 (1937), 64–72 * Griffiths, Ralph A. ''The Reign of King Henry VI'' (London: Ernest Benn, 1981; 2nd edn. 1998) * Hall, Edward. ''The Union of the Two Noble and Illustre Families of Lancaster and York'', 1548 * F. E. Halliday, Halliday, F. E. ''A Shakespeare Companion, 1564–1964'' (Baltimore: Penguin, 1964) * Hodgdon, Barbara. ''The End Crowns All: Closure and Contradiction in Shakespeare's Histories'' (Princeton: Princeton UP, 1991) * Graham Holderness, Holderness, Graham. ''Shakespeare: The Histories'' (New York: Macmillan, 2000) * Holinshed, Raphael. ''Chronicles of England, Scotland and Ireland'', 1587 * Jones, Emrys. ''The Origins of Shakespeare'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1977) * Jordan, John E. "The Reporter of ''Henry VI, Part 2''", ''Modern Language Association, PMLA'', 64:4 (October 1949), 1089–1113 * Kastan, David Scott. "Shakespeare and English History", in Margreta de Grazia and Stanley Wells (editors), ''The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001), 167–183 * Kay, Carol McGinis. "Traps, Slaughter and Chaos: A Study of Shakespeare's ''Henry VI'' plays", ''Studies in the Literary Imagination'', 5 (1972), 1–26 * Lee, Patricia-Ann. "Reflections of Power: Margaret of Anjou and the Dark Side of Queenship", ''Renaissance Quarterly'', 39:2 (Summer, 1986), 183–217 * Longstaffe, Stephen. ""A short report and not otherwise": Jack Cade in ''2 Henry VI''", in Ronald Knowles (editor), ''Shakespeare and Carnival: After Bakhtin'' (London: Macmillan, 1998), 13–37 * Lull, Janis. "Plantagenets, Lancastrians, Yorkists and Tudors: ''1–3 Henry VI, Richard III, Edward III''", in Michael Hattaway (editor) ''The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare's History Plays'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 106–125 * Martin, Randall. "Elizabethan Pageantry in ''Henry VI''", ''University of Toronto Quarterly'', 60:1 (Spring, 1990), 244–264 * McAlindon, Tom. "Swearing and Foreswearing in Shakespeare's Histories", ''Review of English Studies'', 51 (2000), 208–229 * Ronald Brunlees McKerrow, McKerrow, R. B. "A Note on ''Henry VI, Part 2'' and ''The Contention of York and Lancaster''", ''Review of English Studies'', 9 (1933), 157–269 * Kenneth Muir (scholar), Muir, Kenneth. ''The Sources of Shakespeare's Plays'' (London: Routledge, 1977; rpt 2005) * Myers, Norman J. "Finding a "Heap of Jewels" in "Lesser" Shakespeare: ''The Wars of the Roses'' and ''Richard Duke of York''", ''New England Theatre Journal'', 7 (1996), 95–107 * Charles Talbut Onions, Onions, C. T. ''A Shakespeare Glossary'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1953; 2nd edn. edited by Robert D. Eagleson, 1986) * Owens, Margaret E. "The Many-Headed Monster in ''Henry VI, Part 2''", ''Criticism'', 38:3 (Fall, 1996), 63–93 * Richard Pearson (actor), Pearson, Richard. ''A Band of Arrogant and United Heroes: The Story of the Royal Shakespeare Company's Staging of The Wars of the Roses'' (London: Adelphi, 1991) * Pendleton, Thomas A. (ed.) ''Henry VI: Critical Essays'' (London: Routledge, 2001) * Pugliatti, Paola. ''Shakespeare the Historian'' (New York: Palgrave, 1996) * Rackin, Phyllis. "Foreign Country: The Place of Women and Sexuality in Shakespeare's Historical World", in Richard Burt and John Michael Archer (editors) ''Enclosure Acts: Sexuality, Property and Culture in Early Modern England'' (Ithaca: Cornell University Press, 1994), 68–95 * . "Women's Roles in the Elizabethan History Play", in Michael Hattaway (editor) ''The Cambridge Companion to Shakespeare's History Plays'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2002), 71–88 * Rackin, Phyllis and Jean E. Howard, Howard, Jean E. ''Engendering a Nation: A Feminist Account of Shakespeare's English Histories'' (London: Routledge, 1997) * Reed, Robert Rentoul. ''Crime and God's Judgement in Shakespeare'' (Lexington: University Press of Kentucky, 1984) * Ribner, Irving. ''The English History Play in the Age of Shakespeare'' (London: Routledge, 1957; 2nd edn. 1965) * Riggs, David. ''Shakespeare's Heroical Histories'' (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1971) * Rossiter, A. P. "Ambivalence: The Dialectics of the Histories", in Russ McDonald (editor), ''Shakespeare: An Anthology of Criticism and Theory, 1945–2000'' (Oxford: Blackwell, 2004), 100–115 * . ''Angel with Horns: Fifteen Lectures on Shakespeare'' (London: Longmans, 1961; edited by Graham Storey) * Naseeb Shaheen, Shaheen, Naseeb. ''Biblical References in Shakespeare's History Plays'' (London: Associated University Presses, 1989) * Speaight, Robert. ''Shakespeare on the Stage: An Illustrated History of Shakespearean Performance'' (London: Collins, 1973) * Swandler, Homer D. "The Rediscovery of ''Henry VI''", ''Shakespeare Quarterly'', 29:2 (Summer, 1978), 146–163 * E. M. W. Tillyard, Tillyard, E. M. W. ''Shakespeare's History Plays'' (London: The Athlone Press, 1944; rpt. 1986) * Urkowitz, Steven "If I mistake in those foundations which I build upon": Peter Alexander's textual analysis of ''Henry VI Parts 2'' and ''3''", ''English Literary Renaissance'', 18:2 (Summer, 1988), 230–256 * Warren, Roger "The Quarto and Folio Texts of ''2 Henry VI'': A Reconsideration", ''Review of English Studies'', 51 (2000), 193–207 * Watkins, Ronald. "The only Shake-scene", ''Philological Quarterly'', 54:1 (Spring, 1975), 47–67 * Wells, Robert Headlam. "The Fortunes of Tillyard: Twentieth-Century Critical Debate on Shakespeare's History Plays", ''English Studies'', 66:4 (Winter, 1985), 391–403 * Wells, Stanley; Taylor, Gary; Jowett, John and Montgomery, William. ''William Shakespeare: A Textual Companion'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1987) * Williamson, Marilyn L. ""When Men Are Rul'd by Women": Shakespeare's First Tetralogy", ''Shakespeare Studies'', 19 (1987), 41–59 * F. P. Wilson, Wilson, F. P. ''Shakespearean and Other Studies'' (Oxford: Oxford University Press, 1969; edited by Helen Gardner)


External links

*
''Henry VI, Part 2''
– from Project Gutenberg.
''The Second part of King Henry the Sixth''
– scene-indexed HTML version of the play.

– scene-indexed, searchable HTML version of the play.
''The second Part of Henry the Sixt''
– PDF version, with original ''First Folio'' spelling.
''The First Part of the Contention''
– HTML version of the 1594 quarto. *

a



at

''. Accessed 30 October 2018.

* (''BBC Television Shakespeare'' Version). {{DEFAULTSORT:Henry Vi, Part 2 1590s plays Fiction set in the 1450s Cultural depictions of English monarchs English Renaissance plays Cultural depictions of Henry VI of England Biographical plays about English royalty Plays set in England Plays set in the 15th century Henriad Wars of the Roses in fiction Cultural depictions of Richard of York, 3rd Duke of York Cultural depictions of Edward IV Cultural depictions of Richard III of England Plays about kings