''Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar'' is an

Old Icelandic Old Norse, also referred to as Old Nordic or Old Scandinavian, was a stage of development of North Germanic dialects before their final divergence into separate Nordic languages. Old Norse was spoken by inhabitants of Scandinavia and their ...

king's saga focusing on the career of King

Haraldr Sigurðarson Harald Sigurdsson (; – 25 September 1066), also known as Harald III of Norway and given the epithet ''Hardrada'' in the sagas, was King of Norway from 1046 to 1066. He unsuccessfully claimed the Danish throne until 1064 and the English thro ...

of Norway (popularly referred to in English as Harald Hardrada). The title ''Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar'' usually refers specifically to the account of Haraldr given in the collection of kings' sagas known as ''

Heimskringla () is the best known of the Old Norse kings' sagas. It was written in Old Norse in Iceland. While authorship of ''Heimskringla'' is nowhere attributed, some scholars assume it is written by the Icelandic poet and historian Snorri Sturluson (117 ...

'' and attributed to

Snorri Sturluson Snorri Sturluson ( ; ; 1179 – 22 September 1241) was an Icelandic historian, poet, and politician. He was elected twice as lawspeaker of the Icelandic parliament, the Althing. He is commonly thought to have authored or compiled portions of th ...

(1178/79–1241), though a substantially similar account is given in one of Snorri's main sources, the collection ''

Morkinskinna ''Morkinskinna'' is an Old Norse kings' saga, relating the history of Norwegian kings from approximately 1025 to 1157. The saga was written in Iceland around 1220, and has been preserved in a manuscript from around 1275. The name ''Morkinskinn ...

'', which seems to have given the title ''Saga Magnús góða ok Haralds harðráða'' to the equivalent section. In the estimation of Alison Finlay and Anthony Faulkes, 'while ''

Óláfs saga helga ''Óláfs saga helga'' or the ''Saga of St. Olaf'', written in several versions, is one of kings' sagas (''konunga sǫgur'') on the subject of King Olaf Haraldsson the Saint. List of saga versions *'' Oldest Saga of St. Olaf'', ca. 1190, mostly ...

'' dominates ''Heimskringla'' as a whole, ''Haralds saga Sigurðarsonar'' achieves this status over the sagas of its final third, by virtue both of its length and of the compelling character of Haraldr himself'.

Summary

Although the saga contains no

Common Era Common Era (CE) and Before the Common Era (BCE) are year notations for the Gregorian calendar (and its predecessor, the Julian calendar), the world's most widely used calendar era. Common Era and Before the Common Era are alternatives to the ...

dates, its chronology is fairly precise, allowing putative CE dates to be assigned to the events, as here. Although in chapter 99 of ''Haralds saga'', ''Heimskringla'' says that there are no tales of Haraldr before he was 15, Haraldr Sigurðarson is first mentioned in ''Heimskringla'' during ''Óláfs saga helga'': in chapter 76, the infant Haraldr shows his fearlessness to King Óláfr, pulling at his moustache; plays with floating pieces of wood, pretending they are his warfleet; and expresses his domineering enthusiasm for having many warriors. In chapter 209, the fifteen-year-old Haraldr insists on fighting at the Battle of Stiklarstaðir. ''Haralds saga'' itself begins ''

in medias res A narrative work beginning ''in medias res'' (, "into the middle of things") opens in the chronological middle of the plot, rather than at the beginning (cf. '' ab ovo'', '' ab initio''). Often, exposition is initially bypassed, instead filled i ...

'' with Haraldr's escape from the Battle of Stiklarstaðir (ch. 1; 1030). Haraldr proceeds to the court of King Jaroslav I of Kiev (ch. 2; 1031) before entering the military service of Empress

Zoë Porphyrogenita Zoe Porphyrogenita (also spelled Zoë; , "life"; 978 – 1050) was a member of the Macedonian dynasty who briefly reigned as Byzantine empress in 1042, alongside her sister Theodora. Before that she was enthroned as empress consort or emp ...

Byzantium Byzantium () or Byzantion () was an ancient Greek city in classical antiquity that became known as Constantinople in late antiquity and Istanbul today. The Greek name ''Byzantion'' and its Latinization ''Byzantium'' continued to be used as a n ...

(chs 3-15; c. 1035-44). The saga describes his military exploits in Sicily (chs 6-11; c. 1038-41) and North Africa, his conquest of Palestine and pilgrimage to Jerusalem, and escape from the unwanted advances of the Empress. Meanwhile, his nephew, Magnús Óláfsson góði becomes king of Norway (ch 13; 1035). Having left Byzantium, Haraldr sails through the Black Sea to

Novgorod Veliky Novgorod ( ; , ; ), also known simply as Novgorod (), is the largest city and administrative centre of Novgorod Oblast, Russia. It is one of the oldest cities in Russia, being first mentioned in the 9th century. The city lies along the V ...

(ch. 16), married Jaroslav's daughter Ellisif (ch. 17), gathers forces in

Sweden Sweden, formally the Kingdom of Sweden, is a Nordic countries, Nordic country located on the Scandinavian Peninsula in Northern Europe. It borders Norway to the west and north, and Finland to the east. At , Sweden is the largest Nordic count ...

(ch. 18; 1045), and, in alliance with

Sveinn Úlfsson Sweyn II ( – 28 April 1076), also known as Sweyn Estridsson (, ) and Sweyn Ulfsson, was King of Denmark from 1047 until his death in 1076. He was the son of Ulf Thorgilsson and Estrid Svendsdatter, and the grandson of Sweyn Forkbeard through hi ...

, invades Denmark and Norway (chs 19-20; 1046). Haraldr and Magnús make peace and share Norway, albeit tensely, until Magnús's death from sickness (chs 21-30; 1046-47), after which Haraldr is Norway's sole king. Meanwhile, Sveinn establishes himself as king of Denmark (chs 26, 31; 1047). Haraldr and Sveinn vie for the rule of Denmark until finally making peace (ch 71; 1064). During this period, Haraldr takes a second wife,

Þóra Þorbergsdóttir Tora Torbergsdatter (, born 1025 – year of death unknown: fl. 1066) was a Norwegian royal consort. She was the mother of two kings of Norway. It is possible, but unconfirmed, that she was also queen of Denmark or Sweden. Biography Tora Torbergs ...

, with whom he has the sons

Magnús Magnus, meaning "Great" in Latin, was used as cognomen of Gnaeus Pompeius Magnus in the first century BC. The best-known use of the name during the Roman Empire is for the fourth-century Western Roman Emperor Magnus Maximus. The name gained wid ...

and

Óláfr Olaf or Olav (, , or British ; ) is a Dutch, Polish, Scandinavian and German given name. It is presumably of Proto-Norse origin, reconstructed as ''*Anu-laibaz'', from ''anu'' "ancestor, grand-father" and ''laibaz'' "heirloom, descendant". Old Eng ...

(ch 33; 1048). After the peace treaty with Denmark, Haraldr campaigns in

Upland Upland or Uplands may refer to: Geography *Hill, an area of higher land, generally *Highland, an area of higher land divided into low and high points *Upland and lowland, conditional descriptions of a plain based on elevation above sea level *I ...

(chs 72-74; 1065). Chapters 75-77 describe the development of the succession crisis in England following the death of

Edward the Confessor Edward the Confessor ( 1003 – 5 January 1066) was King of England from 1042 until his death in 1066. He was the last reigning monarch of the House of Wessex. Edward was the son of Æthelred the Unready and Emma of Normandy. He succeede ...

and the accession of

Harold Godwinson Harold Godwinson ( – 14 October 1066), also called Harold II, was the last crowned Anglo-Saxon King of England. Harold reigned from 6 January 1066 until his death at the Battle of Hastings on 14 October 1066, the decisive battle of the Norman ...

(1064-66). Harold's brother

Tostig Godwinson Tostig Godwinson ( 102925 September 1066) was an Anglo-Saxon Earl of Northumbria and brother of King Harold Godwinson. After being exiled by his brother, Tostig supported the Norwegian king Harald Hardrada's invasion of England, and was killed ...

seeks the support of the Danish king Sveinn in invading England (ch. 78), and then Haraldr (ch. 79). Haraldr agrees, campaigns in Yorkshire, but dies at the

Battle of Stamford Bridge The Battle of Stamford Bridge () took place at the village of Stamford Bridge, East Riding of Yorkshire, in England, on 25 September 1066, between an English army under Harold Godwinson, King Harold Godwinson and an invading Norwegian force l ...

(chs 80-94; 1066).

William the Bastard William the Conqueror (Bates ''William the Conqueror'' p. 33– 9 September 1087), sometimes called William the Bastard, was the first Norman king of England (as William I), reigning from 1066 until his death. A descendant of Rollo, he was ...

invades and conquers England (chs 95-97; 1066). Haraldr's son

becomes king of Norway, coming to share the kingdom with his brother

until his death (chs 98-101; 1066-69). The closing chapters include a eulogy and evaluation of Haraldr (chs 99-100). The saga includes 92 stanzas of

skaldic verse A skald, or skáld (Old Norse: ; , meaning "poet"), is one of the often named poets who composed skaldic poetry, one of the two kinds of Old Norse poetry in alliterative verse, the other being Eddic poetry. Skaldic poems were traditionally compo ...

, some attributed to Haraldr himself.

Sources

The main source for ''Haralds saga'' is the relevant sections of the earlier Icelandic kings' saga ''Morkinskinna'', but because that does not survive in an early form, it is hard to be certain how far the differences between ''Morkinskinna'' and ''Haralds saga'' are due to Snorri's revisions and how far they are due to later changes to ''Morkinskinna''. In particular, ''Morkinskinna'' contains many more '' þættir'' giving anecdotes about Haraldr, among them the famous '' Auðunar þáttr vestfirzka''. Twentieth-century research assumed that these had generally been added later in the transmission of ''Morkinskinna'', but twenty-first-century research suggests rather that they may have been original, and that Snorri tended to remove such material. Chapters 39–72, however, are more similar to '' Hákonar saga Ívarssonar'', and most research suggests that ''Haralds saga'' is based on that for this section, but the reverse has also been suggested: that ''Hákonar saga'' drew on ''Haralds saga''. Snorri drew additionally on his knowledge of orally transmitted

(including the poems " Sexstefja", " Stúfsdrápa", and Harald’s own " Gamanvísur") and anecdotes.

Historical reliability

The outlines of ''Haralds saga'' are independently verified by (near-)contemporary accounts, principally the Byzantine ''

Strategikon of Kekaumenos The ''Strategikon of Kekaumenos'' (, ) is a late 11th century Byzantine manual offering advice on warfare and the handling of public and domestic affairs. The book was composed between 1075 and 1078 by a Byzantine general of partly Armenian des ...

'',

Adam of Bremen Adam of Bremen (; ; before 1050 – 12 October 1081/1085) was a German medieval chronicler. He lived and worked in the second half of the eleventh century. Adam is most famous for his chronicle '' Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum'' ('' ...

's ''

Gesta Hammaburgensis ecclesiae pontificum (Medieval Latin for "Deeds of the Bishops of Hamburg") is a historical treatise written between 1073 and 1076 by Adam of Bremen, who made additions (''scholia'') to the text until his death (possibly 1081; before 1085). It is one of the most ...

'', and various accounts of the

Norman Conquest of England The Norman Conquest (or the Conquest) was the 11th-century invasion and occupation of England by an army made up of thousands of Normans, Norman, French people, French, Flemish people, Flemish, and Bretons, Breton troops, all led by the Du ...

, principally the

Anglo-Saxon Chronicle The ''Anglo-Saxon Chronicle'' is a collection of annals in Old English, chronicling the history of the Anglo-Saxons. The original manuscript of the ''Chronicle'' was created late in the ninth century, probably in Wessex, during the reign of ...

. Snorri seems to have attempted to portray Norwegian royalty in a more positive light than his written sources. The account of his attempts to conquer England and his defeat at the Battle of Stamford Bridge is judged less accurate than the Anglo-Saxon records. The 1966 translation gives details, including a suggestion that Snorri included in that battle things that actually happened between Saxon and Norman at the Battle of Hastings.''King Harald's Saga'' translated by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966), notes to pages 144 to 155.

Editions and translations

''Haralds saga'' has frequently been edited and translated in general editions and translations of ''Morkinskinna'', ''Fagrskinna'', and ''Heimskringla'': see the relevant articles for details. Alone or as part of a selection, the saga has appeared thus: * ''The Sagas of Olaf Tryggvason and of Harald the Tyrant (Harald Haardraade)'', trans. by Ethel H. Hearn from the Norwegian translation by Gustav Storm, with pictures by H. Egedius, C. Krohg and E. Werenskiold (London: Williams & Norgate, 1911) * Snorri Sturluson, ''Haralds saga harðráða and Magnúss saga berfætts'', ed. by Sir William A. Craigie (Reykjavík: Menntamálaráð & Þjóðvinafélag, 1950) * ''King Harald's Saga: Harald Hardradi of Norway, from Snorri Sturluson's 'Heimskringla, trans. by Magnus Magnusson and Hermann Pálsson (Harmondsworth: Penguin, 1966) * Snorri Sturluson, ''Haralds saga harðráða'' (Akureyri: Menntaskólinn á Akureyri, 1975). * Snorri Sturluson, ''La saga de Harald l'impitoyable: Haralds saga Sigurdarsonar tirée du Heimskringla'', trans. by

Régis Boyer Régis Boyer (25 June 1932 – 16 June 2017) was a French literary scholar, historian and translator, specialised on Nordic literature and the Viking Age. Biography Régis Boyer was born in Reims on 25 June 1932. At age 20 he earned a degree in lit ...

, Petite bibliothèque Payot, 363 (Paris: Payot, 1979), . * Snorri Sturluson, ''Haralds saga harðráða: úr Heimskringlu'', read by Ingólfur B. Kristjánsson (Reykjavík: Hlusta.is, 2010) udiobook The poetry in it has recently been edited and translated by Kari Ellen Gade in ''Poetry from the Kings' Sagas, 2'', ed. by Kari Ellen Gade, Skaldic Poetry of the Scandinavian Middle Ages, 2 (Turnhout: Brepols, 2009).

Appearances in other works

''Haralds saga'' is the basis for the short 1979 opera ''

King Harald's Saga ''King Harald's Saga'', ''Grand opera in three acts for unaccompanied solo soprano singing eight rôles (based on the saga 'Heimskringla' by Snorri Sturlson, 1179-1241)'' is a monodrama by Judith Weir, commissioned by Jane Manning and premiered ...

'' by

Judith Weir Dame Judith Weir (born 11 May 1954) is a British composer. She served as Master of the King's Music from 2014 to 2024. Appointed by Queen Elizabeth II, Weir was the first woman to hold this office. Early life Weir was born in Cambridge, Englan ...

References

{{Heimskringla Kings' sagas Works by Snorri Sturluson Cultural depictions of Harald Hardrada Cultural depictions of Harold Godwinson Cultural depictions of William the Conqueror