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''Gândirea'' ("The Thinking"), known during its early years as ''Gândirea Literară - Artistică - Socială'' ("The Literary - Artistic - Social Thinking"), was a
Romania Romania is a country located at the crossroads of Central Europe, Central, Eastern Europe, Eastern and Southeast Europe. It borders Ukraine to the north and east, Hungary to the west, Serbia to the southwest, Bulgaria to the south, Moldova to ...
n
literary Literature is any collection of written work, but it is also used more narrowly for writings specifically considered to be an art form, especially novels, plays, and poems. It includes both print and digital writing. In recent centuries, ...
,
political Politics () is the set of activities that are associated with decision-making, making decisions in social group, groups, or other forms of power (social and political), power relations among individuals, such as the distribution of Social sta ...
and art magazine.


Overview

Founded by Cezar Petrescu and D. I. Cucu in the city of Cluj, and first issued on May 1, 1921, as a literary supplement for the Cluj-based '' Voința'', it was originally a modernist and expressionist-influenced journal. During its early existence, it attracted criticism from the traditional cultural establishment for allegedly allowing influences from Germanic Europe to permeate Romanian culture. ''Gândirea'' moved to
Bucharest Bucharest ( , ; ) is the capital and largest city of Romania. The metropolis stands on the River Dâmbovița (river), Dâmbovița in south-eastern Romania. Its population is officially estimated at 1.76 million residents within a greater Buc ...
in October 1922, and, in 1926, its leadership was joined by the
nationalist Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the State (polity), state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation,Anthony D. Smith, Smith, A ...
thinker Nichifor Crainic; he became its director and ideological guide in 1928, gradually moving it toward a
mystical Mysticism is popularly known as becoming one with God or the Absolute, but may refer to any kind of ecstasy or altered state of consciousness which is given a religious or spiritual meaning. It may also refer to the attainment of insight ...
Orthodox focus — itself occasionally referred to as ''Gândirism''. With just two interruptions in publication (1925 and 1933–34), ''Gândirea'' became one of the most important cultural magazines of the Romanian
interwar period In the history of the 20th century, the interwar period, also known as the interbellum (), lasted from 11 November 1918 to 1 September 1939 (20 years, 9 months, 21 days) – from the end of World War I (WWI) to the beginning of World War II ( ...
. A proponent of home-grown traditionalist ideas, it eventually found itself in opposition to ''
Sburătorul ''Sburătorul'' was a Romanian modernist literary magazine and literary society, established in Bucharest in April 1919. Led by Eugen Lovinescu, the circle was instrumental in developing new trends and styles in Romanian literature, ranging f ...
'', the modernist magazine headed by literary critic Eugen Lovinescu, as well as to the journal '' Viaţa Românească'', which stood for the
left-wing Left-wing politics describes the range of Ideology#Political ideologies, political ideologies that support and seek to achieve social equality and egalitarianism, often in opposition to social hierarchy either as a whole or of certain social ...
and agrarian current known as
Poporanism Poporanism is a Romanian version of nationalism and populism. The word is derived from ''popor'', meaning "people" in Romanian language, Romanian. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, Poporanism is distinguished by its opposition to Ma ...
. In its later years, ''Gândirea'' routinely hosted
fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
-inspired and antisemitic articles, largely reflecting Crainic's own political views. By then, numerous disputes were taking place between Crainic's supporters and former ''Gândirea'' collaborators such as literary critic Tudor Vianu and poet Tudor Arghezi. Additional debates were carried between Crainic and the centrist political figures Nicolae Iorga and Constantin Rădulescu-Motru over the nature of nationalism and religion in Romania. The magazine often identified its secularist adversaries with
materialism Materialism is a form of monism, philosophical monism according to which matter is the fundamental Substance theory, substance in nature, and all things, including mind, mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. Acco ...
, and occasionally accused modernist figures in Romanian literature of writing
pornography Pornography (colloquially called porn or porno) is Sexual suggestiveness, sexually suggestive material, such as a picture, video, text, or audio, intended for sexual arousal. Made for consumption by adults, pornographic depictions have evolv ...
. ''Gândirea'' was briefly closed down over suspicions that it was supporting the fascist
Iron Guard The Iron Guard () was a Romanian militant revolutionary nationalism, revolutionary Clerical fascism, religious fascist Political movement, movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel M ...
, and, between 1938 and 1944, endorsed the successive dictatorial regimes of the National Renaissance Front, the National Legionary State, and '' Conducător'' Ion Antonescu. During World War II, it expressed support for Antonescu's antisemitic policies, which Crainic claimed to have inspired. Together with all other publications Crainic was heading, ''Gândirea'' ceased to be published in 1944, as Romania ended its alliance with the
Axis Powers The Axis powers, originally called the Rome–Berlin Axis and also Rome–Berlin–Tokyo Axis, was the military coalition which initiated World War II and fought against the Allies of World War II, Allies. Its principal members were Nazi Ge ...
.


Contributors

Several circles were formed around ''Gândirea'', bringing together a large part of the period's Romanian intellectuals: Ion Barbu, Vasile Băncilă, Lucian Blaga, Dan Botta, Alexandru Busuioceanu, Mateiu Caragiale, Vasile Ciocâlteu, Oscar Walter Cisek, Anastase Demian, Radu Gyr, N. I. Herescu, Vintilă Horia, Adrian Maniu, Gib Mihăescu, , Ștefan I. Nenițescu, Ovidiu Papadima, Victor Papilian, Ioan Petrovici, Ion Pillat, V. I. Popa, Dragoș Protopopescu, Ion Marin Sadoveanu, Ion Sân-Giorgiu, Zaharia Stancu, Dumitru Stăniloae, Paul Sterian, Francisc Șirato, Al. O. Teodoreanu, Ionel Teodoreanu,
Sandu Tudor Sandu Tudor (; born Alexandru Al. Teodorescu, known in church records as Brother Agathon, later Daniil Teodorescu, Daniil Sandu Tudor, Daniil de la Rarău; December 22 or December 24, 1896 – November 17, 1962) was a Romanian poet, journalist, th ...
, Tudor Vianu, Pan M. Vizirescu, Vasile Voiculescu, G. M. Zamfirescu. Many other intellectuals and artists had their work published in ''Gândirea'', and some of them were only temporarily associated with the journal. They include Tudor Arghezi, George Călinescu, Șerban Cioculescu, Petre Pandrea, Mircea Eliade, Emil Cioran, Marcel Janco, Ion Vinea, and Mircea Vulcănescu.


History


Beginnings

For much of the 1920s, the magazine was a venue for modernist criticism, and involved in theoretical debates over the influence of German- and Austrian-influenced
Expressionism Expressionism is a modernist movement, initially in poetry and painting, originating in Northern Europe around the beginning of the 20th century. Its typical trait is to present the world solely from a subjective perspective, distorting it rad ...
on early 20th century culture. ''Gândireas early years coincided with the aftermath of World War I and the establishment of Greater Romania, making the magazine one of several newly established
Romanian-language Romanian (obsolete spelling: Roumanian; , or , ) is the official and main language of Romania and Moldova. Romanian is part of the Eastern Romance languages, Eastern Romance sub-branch of Romance languages, a linguistic group that evolved fr ...
periodicals in the formerly Austro-Hungarian region of
Transylvania Transylvania ( or ; ; or ; Transylvanian Saxon dialect, Transylvanian Saxon: ''Siweberjen'') is a List of historical regions of Central Europe, historical and cultural region in Central Europe, encompassing central Romania. To the east and ...
. It has thus been argued that, before moving to Bucharest, the magazine was also involved in promoting a unitary Romanian culture inside the newly acquired province, but this appears to have been one of its secondary goals. Without producing its own an artistic program, ''Gândirea'' counted among the few Romanian publications to praise Expressionist culture (its editors often extended the term to non-Expressionists such as Constantin Brâncuși, Max Reinhardt,
Alexander Archipenko Alexander Porfyrovych Archipenko (February 25, 1964) was a Ukrainian-American avant-garde artist, sculpture, sculptor, and graphic designer, graphic artist, active in France and the United States. He was one of the first to apply the principles o ...
, and Dmitry Merezhkovsky). This focus on emotion and expression was especially present in essays contributed by Adrian Maniu and Ion Sân-Giorgiu, as well as in Ion Marin Sadoveanu's chronicles about the impact of Gothic traditions on early 20th century literature. The Expressionist trend, accompanied by ''Gândireas frequent and sympathetic reviews of
Futurism Futurism ( ) was an Art movement, artistic and social movement that originated in Italy, and to a lesser extent in other countries, in the early 20th century. It emphasized dynamism, speed, technology, youth, violence, and objects such as the ...
and
Dada Dada () or Dadaism was an anti-establishment art movement that developed in 1915 in the context of the Great War and the earlier anti-art movement. Early centers for dadaism included Zürich and Berlin. Within a few years, the movement had s ...
, caused Crainic (who was only a correspondent at the time), to express his distaste. Despite hosting a large number of essays on art criticism, and in contrast to the style of
avant-garde In the arts and literature, the term ''avant-garde'' ( meaning or ) identifies an experimental genre or work of art, and the artist who created it, which usually is aesthetically innovative, whilst initially being ideologically unacceptable ...
journals such as '' Contimporanul'', ''Gândirea'' rarely featured Expressionist graphics. Notably, in 1924, the editors chose to illustrate an issue with a print by the proto-Expressionist
Edvard Munch Edvard Munch ( ; ; 12 December 1863 – 23 January 1944) was a Norwegian painter. His 1893 work ''The Scream'' has become one of Western art's most acclaimed images. His childhood was overshadowed by illness, bereavement and the dread of inher ...
, commented upon by Tudor Vianu. Nevertheless, later in the same year, painter Francisc Şirato used ''Gândirea'' as a means to popularize his essays on ''Visual Arts in Romania'', in which he publicized his break with Expressionist influences and his newfound interest in Romanian specificity in local art and
folklore Folklore is the body of expressive culture shared by a particular group of people, culture or subculture. This includes oral traditions such as Narrative, tales, myths, legends, proverbs, Poetry, poems, jokes, and other oral traditions. This also ...
. In parallel, Oskar Walter Cisek's art chronicle (published between 1923 and 1929), gave, overall, equal exposure to all existing modernist trends. Literature produced by the first of several ''Gândirea'' circles received criticism from several traditionalist circles for being one of "sick modernists". Notably, the historian and politician Nicolae Iorga, one of the major cultural figures of his time, cited fears that Romania was becoming " Germanized". He argued that, aside from Crainic's poetry it published, the magazine was copying Germanic ideals originating with the art groups of
Munich Munich is the capital and most populous city of Bavaria, Germany. As of 30 November 2024, its population was 1,604,384, making it the third-largest city in Germany after Berlin and Hamburg. Munich is the largest city in Germany that is no ...
and
Vienna Vienna ( ; ; ) is the capital city, capital, List of largest cities in Austria, most populous city, and one of Federal states of Austria, nine federal states of Austria. It is Austria's primate city, with just over two million inhabitants. ...
(" 'Gândirea'' isthe window copy of modernist jargon muttered by Munich only to be responded through other parrotings, insane or charlatanesque, by Vienna"). By that moment, however, the magazine was itself fusing Expressionist influences with traditionalist aesthetic goals, to the point where it had become, according to Lucian Blaga, "a bouquet of centrifugal tendencies". During the 1920s, ''Gândirea'' hosted polemical articles by the traditionalists and traditionalist-inspired Iorga, Crainic, Cezar Petrescu, and Pamfil Şeicaru. Writing much later, Crainic expressed his opinion that the two visions were only apparently contradictory:
"Expressionism in painting is a German fatality. But from ermanyit has migrated towards us as well. ..Have the poetry of Blaga and Adrian Maniu, the theater of Blaga, Maniu, lost their ethnic (and therefore traditional) specificity for having borrowed the expressionist style from wherever?"
Reviewing the emphasis of traditionalism subsequently present in ''Gândireas pages, the critic Ovid Crohmălniceanu argued that it was no less an evidence of a new kind of literature. Although the main proponent of traditionalism, Crainic himself remained open to some modernist influences, and translated the innovative works of
Rainer Maria Rilke René Karl Wilhelm Johann Josef Maria Rilke (4 December 1875 â€“ 29 December 1926), known as Rainer Maria Rilke, was an Austrian poet and novelist. Acclaimed as an Idiosyncrasy, idiosyncratic and expressive poet, he is widely recognized as ...
into Romanian.Livezeanu, p.118


Early conflicts

From the late 1920s and over much of its existence, Crainic's press engaged in polemics with modernists of the Eugen Lovinescu school, which at times turned into accusations that Lovinescu was "a petty poser" and "a falsifier of Romanian culture". Crainic and his traditionalist followers rejected Lovinescu's views on local "synchronism" with
Western culture Western culture, also known as Western civilization, European civilization, Occidental culture, Western society, or simply the West, refers to the Cultural heritage, internally diverse culture of the Western world. The term "Western" encompas ...
. Their attitude in regard to the latter has drawn comparisons with protochronist messages in Communist Romania, both claiming the superiority and primacy of Romanian culture over its Western counterparts. Although Crainic publicized his thoughts on the matter mainly through his other periodical, '' Sfarmă-Piatră'', ''Gândirea'' notably hosted a 1926 article in which he likened the fight against Lovinescu's influence to "a second independence f Romania. During the 1930s, ''Gândirea'' was at the center of virulent polemics involving, on one side, former contributors such as Tudor Arghezi and Tudor Vianu, and, on the other, those younger journalists who recognized Crainic as their mentor. Initially, this took the form of a ''Gândirist'' critique of both Modernism and the
socialist Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
-inspired current known as
Poporanism Poporanism is a Romanian version of nationalism and populism. The word is derived from ''popor'', meaning "people" in Romanian language, Romanian. Founded by Constantin Stere in the early 1890s, Poporanism is distinguished by its opposition to Ma ...
: in a 1930 article for ''Gândirea'', Crainic notably indicated his distaste for "the irremediable materialism" he believed to be professed by the rival '' Viaţa Românească''. Following this, Vianu, whose political options contrasted with the new trend, chose to discontinue his contributions and joined the staff at ''Viaţa Românească''; although Lucian Blaga shared some views with Crainic, he too decided to distance himself from the magazine as early as 1930 (writing to Vianu that he did not consider himself a "disciple of our common friend Nichifor's Orthodoxy").


Crainic's impact

In December 1931, as the magazine celebrated its first decade, Crainic summed up ''Gândireas guidelines, stressing that its commitment to Orthodoxy, the Romanian monarchy and
nationalism Nationalism is an idea or movement that holds that the nation should be congruent with the state. As a movement, it presupposes the existence and tends to promote the interests of a particular nation, Smith, Anthony. ''Nationalism: Theory, I ...
:
" ..set apart a person from our generation from a thousand others — heseare nothing other than absolutely necessary conditions which make possible the true spiritual life. ..This is what our precursors cannot comprehend, einga sad generation liquidating a culture that was not theirs and through this was not even cultural."
The ''Viața Românească'' columnist George Călinescu was skeptical of Crainic's politics, and noted his alternation between various nationalist camps. Commenting on ''Gândireas choice to support Carol II at the time when he replaced his son Mihai I as king (1930), he likened Crainic to Judas Iscariot:
" rainic isa person incapable of any privation, seeker of pieces of silver and worldly pleasures, great seeker of noisy shindings where pistols are being fired, a cajoler and a careerist, outrageously dedicating ''Gândirea'' today to HRM Mihai, tomorrow to HRM Carol II, the day after tomorrow to the great apostle of the nation Nicolae Iorga, at any moment when the homage could be tied to the pursuit of a personal interest."
At the time, ''Gândirism'' owed inspiration to Russian ''émigré'' authors, both Orthodox traditionalists such as
Nikolai Berdyaev Nikolai Alexandrovich Berdyaev (; ;  â€“ 24 March 1948) was a Russian Empire, Russian philosopher, theologian, and Christian existentialism, Christian existentialist who emphasized the existentialism, existential spiritual significance of Pe ...
and several advocates of the nationalist and mystical Eurasianist trend ( Nikolai Trubetzkoy, Pyotr Savitsky, Pyotr Alexeyev, and Ivan Ilyin). Around 1934, Crainic reflected upon the connection his magazine had with other traditionalist cultural institutions, and concluded that his group was fulfilling the legacy of the more
secular Secularity, also the secular or secularness (from Latin , or or ), is the state of being unrelated or neutral in regards to religion. The origins of secularity can be traced to the Bible itself. The concept was fleshed out through Christian hi ...
but equally traditionalist magazine '' Sămănătorul'' ("Over the land that we have learned to love from ''Sămănătorul'' we see arching itself the azure tarpaulin of the Orthodox Church. We see this substance of this Church blending in with the ethnic substance.") More than a decade later, Călinescu argued that an enduring trait of ''Gândirism'' (to which he referred as ''Orthodoxism'') had been a manifest belief in miracles. He believed to have noticed this in the works of ''Gândirea'' contributors such as Mircea Vulcănescu (in his homage to the deceased painter Sabin Popp, whom he allegedly regarded as "a saint"), Vasile Ciocâlteu ("who asks from God, in one of his poems, the favor to hold hot coals in his hands") and the Athonite pilgrim
Sandu Tudor Sandu Tudor (; born Alexandru Al. Teodorescu, known in church records as Brother Agathon, later Daniil Teodorescu, Daniil Sandu Tudor, Daniil de la Rarău; December 22 or December 24, 1896 – November 17, 1962) was a Romanian poet, journalist, th ...
(who believed in "the workings of a mysterious miracle" as explanations for various events). In his later columns for ''Gândirea'', Crainic focused on explaining his ideal of ethnocracy in connection with the magazine's overall goals. This involved the denunciation of "foreign elements" and "minority islands", with a specific focus on the Jewish-Romanian community ("Jews make use of an indolent hospitality in order to deprive our kin of its ancient patrimony") and its alleged connections with the political establishment ("In statements, in speeches and in acts of government our democrats have always declared themselves on the side of intruders and the allogeneous"). According to Călinescu, Crainic, unlike the regime in
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
, was not condoning
racism Racism is the belief that groups of humans possess different behavioral traits corresponding to inherited attributes and can be divided based on the superiority of one Race (human categorization), race or ethnicity over another. It may also me ...
as much as
religious antisemitism Religious antisemitism is the aversion to or discrimination against Jews as a whole based on religious doctrines of supersession, which expect or demand the disappearance of Judaism and the conversion of Jews to other faiths. This form of ant ...
:
"For reasons of churchly policy, the race factor is averted and rainictakes a stand against acism in Nazi Germanyand those nationalists who advocate the elimination of Christianized Jews and deny them baptism. 'The Church is open to all'. Although it is not said outright, it is understood that a baptized Jew becomes a Romanian, Nation and Religion being correlated notions. ..''Gândirea'' has thus received plenty of rallied, that is to say Orthodoxized, Jews."
In parallel, around 1931, the magazine's approach to
philosophy Philosophy ('love of wisdom' in Ancient Greek) is a systematic study of general and fundamental questions concerning topics like existence, reason, knowledge, Value (ethics and social sciences), value, mind, and language. It is a rational an ...
was criticized by the Personalist thinker Constantin Rădulescu-Motru, who deemed it " belletristic"; the traditionalist philosopher Mircea Vulcănescu, although himself only occasionally associated with ''Gândirea'', defended Crainic's influence in front of the pragmatic
conservative Conservatism is a cultural, social, and political philosophy and ideology that seeks to promote and preserve traditional institutions, customs, and values. The central tenets of conservatism may vary in relation to the culture and civiliza ...
'' Junimist'' tradition arguably represented by Rădulescu-Motru inside the
University of Bucharest The University of Bucharest (UB) () is a public university, public research university in Bucharest, Romania. It was founded in its current form on by a decree of Prince Alexandru Ioan Cuza to convert the former Princely Academy of Bucharest, P ...
. Writing in 1937, Crainic celebrated ''Gândireas role in making nationalism and Orthodoxy priorities in Romania's intellectual and political life:
"The term 'ethnic' with its meaning of 'ethnic specificity' imprinted in all sorts of expressions of the people, as a mark of its original properties, has been spread for 16 years by the journal ''Gândirea''. The same thing applies to the terms of autochthonism, traditionalism, Orthodoxy, spirituality and many more which became the shared values of our current nationalist language."


1934 hiatus and recovery

A scandal erupted in 1934, when the magazine was closed down over Crainic's implication in the trial of
Premier Premier is a title for the head of government in central governments, state governments and local governments of some countries. A second in command to a premier is designated as a deputy premier. A premier will normally be a head of govern ...
Ion G. Duca's assassins, all of them members of the
fascist Fascism ( ) is a far-right, authoritarian, and ultranationalist political ideology and movement. It is characterized by a dictatorial leader, centralized autocracy, militarism, forcible suppression of opposition, belief in a natural soci ...
Iron Guard The Iron Guard () was a Romanian militant revolutionary nationalism, revolutionary Clerical fascism, religious fascist Political movement, movement and political party founded in 1927 by Corneliu Zelea Codreanu as the Legion of the Archangel M ...
(a movement to which Crainic was close at the time). Instigation of the killing was attributed to, among others, Crainic, who faced trial; ''Gândirea'', like '' Calendarul'' (his other major journal), was closed down by the authorities. The editor was eventually
acquitted In common law jurisdictions, an acquittal means that the criminal prosecution has failed to prove that the accused is guilty beyond a reasonable doubt of the charge presented. It certifies that the accused is free from the charge of an o ...
, but ''Calendarul'' was never allowed to resume print. Instead, Crainic focused his energy on issuing '' Sfarmă-Piatră''. Following its reemergence, ''Gândirea'' was again involved in a debate with Rădulescu-Motru. Among others, the latter contended that the ''Gândirist'' focus on Orthodoxy clashed with the traditional openness Romanian nationalism (which he referred to as ''Romanianism'') had towards modernization, equating Crainic's thought with "
xenophobia Xenophobia (from (), 'strange, foreign, or alien', and (), 'fear') is the fear or dislike of anything that is perceived as being foreign or strange. It is an expression that is based on the perception that a conflict exists between an in-gr ...
" and "nationalist patter". In response, Crainic accused Rădulescu-Motru of displaying "a Masonic aversion towards Orthodoxy",Crainic, in Ornea, p.124 and of not having grasped the sense of spirituality (to the statement "''Romanianism'' is a spirituality coming to justify a realist order", he replied "Any man knows that the word spirituality has a strictly religious meaning"). Later, he defined Rădulescu-Motru's thought as "militant philosophical
atheism Atheism, in the broadest sense, is an absence of belief in the Existence of God, existence of Deity, deities. Less broadly, atheism is a rejection of the belief that any deities exist. In an even narrower sense, atheism is specifically the ...
", and, in a ''Gândirea'' article of 1937, referred to him as a "philosophic simpleton 'găgăuţ''.Crainic, in Ornea, p.456 As early as April 1933, Crainic wrote articles welcoming
Adolf Hitler Adolf Hitler (20 April 1889 – 30 April 1945) was an Austrian-born German politician who was the dictator of Nazi Germany from 1933 until Death of Adolf Hitler, his suicide in 1945. Adolf Hitler's rise to power, He rose to power as the lea ...
's rise to power in Germany, and began support for corporatist goals. Four years later, he authored a ''Gândirea'' article in which he praised
Benito Mussolini Benito Amilcare Andrea Mussolini (29 July 188328 April 1945) was an Italian politician and journalist who, upon assuming office as Prime Minister of Italy, Prime Minister, became the dictator of Fascist Italy from the March on Rome in 1922 un ...
and
Italian fascism Italian fascism (), also called classical fascism and Fascism, is the original fascist ideology, which Giovanni Gentile and Benito Mussolini developed in Italy. The ideology of Italian fascism is associated with a series of political parties le ...
as the most adequate authoritarian alternative to
positivism Positivism is a philosophical school that holds that all genuine knowledge is either true by definition or positivemeaning '' a posteriori'' facts derived by reason and logic from sensory experience.John J. Macionis, Linda M. Gerber, ''Soci ...
,
materialism Materialism is a form of monism, philosophical monism according to which matter is the fundamental Substance theory, substance in nature, and all things, including mind, mental states and consciousness, are results of material interactions. Acco ...
,
capitalism Capitalism is an economic system based on the private ownership of the means of production and their use for the purpose of obtaining profit. This socioeconomic system has developed historically through several stages and is defined by ...
and
socialism Socialism is an economic ideology, economic and political philosophy encompassing diverse Economic system, economic and social systems characterised by social ownership of the means of production, as opposed to private ownership. It describes ...
alike:
" ascism isa spiritual political concept hosemanifestations, torn away from the tight circle of positivism and freed from the suffocating prison of materialism, fall into order on the ghostly marrow of history, prolonging themselves into the recess of past centuries and into the anticipations of the coming century. ..A man bears there, under his vast dome-like forehead, our European century: Benito Mussolini. ..The State created by Mussolini is the exemplary State. ..Fascism is no longer capitalism, no longer socialism, but an authoritarian adjustment of every factor in production, geared into a social organism where nothing is left to chance. ..More than any other country, Romania needs such a moral transformation in the depths of its soul ..the spirit of a new Rome will suggest the shape of history destined to be created by a nationalist Romania."
This coincided with friendly relations between Crainic and the Italian '' Comitati d'azione per l'universalità di Roma'' (CAUR, the "Fascist International"), first evidenced in 1933–1934, at a time when Mussolini was undecided over the local political movement which was to attract his support. CAUR was planning to advance Crainic money to start a new publication, entirely dedicated to support for the Italian model, but the design was abandoned when Ugo Sola, the Italian ambassador in Bucharest, advised against it (Sola had been refused by the Iron Guard when approaching them with a similar proposal).Veiga, p.253 As CAUR ended its all its relations with the Guard (who opted instead in favor of Nazi backing), it kept its contacts with Crainic and other less revolutionary-minded Romanian politicians — Mihail Manoilescu, Alexandru Averescu, Nicolae Iorga, Alexandru Vaida-Voevod, Octavian Goga and A. C. Cuza. In 1935, Crainic, who had been a vice president of Cuza's National-Christian Defense League, joined the fascist National Christian Party, but split with it after his ethnocratic ideal was dismissed by older party politicians (1937). Writing in 1938 for his '' Porunca Vremii'', Crainic argued:
"There exists authority based on love. The latter is Mussolini's authority over his people. It bursts out of the characteristic forces of the creative personality, like fire provoked by exploding bombs. Mussolini does not terrorize, for Mussolini does not kill. Mussolini attracts. ..All his system is based on the fervent and unanimous adherence of his people."


Late 1930s polemics

After Emil Cioran published his ''The Transfiguration of Romania'' in 1937, Crainic reacted to the book's pro- totalitarian but overtly skeptic message, calling it "a bloody, merciless, massacre of today's Romania, without even he fearof matricide and sacrilege".Crainic, in Ornea, p.143 To Cioran's support for modernization on a model which owed inspiration to both
Nazi Germany Nazi Germany, officially known as the German Reich and later the Greater German Reich, was the German Reich, German state between 1933 and 1945, when Adolf Hitler and the Nazi Party controlled the country, transforming it into a Totalit ...
and the Soviet Union, as well as to his criticism of Romanian traditions, Crainic replied by urging young people in general not to abandon "faith in our kin's rising century". In early 1938, Nicolae Iorga, who had by then come into open conflict with the Iron Guard, voiced criticism of '' Cuvântul'' (a paper associated with the latter political movement), arguing that, despite an emphasis on traditionalism and localism, its ideological guidelines took direct inspiration from the foreign models of Nazism and Italian fascism. The dispute, involving, on the other side, Nae Ionescu, drew echoes in ''Gândirea'' — also challenged by Vulcănescu's argument that ''Gândirea'' had failed in their attempt to identify with Orthodoxy, Crainic polemized that ''Gândirism'' was in fact opposed to all forms of leftist and rightist internationalism (the "internationalist currents dominating our age"). At the time, publications headed by Ionescu and Crainic, despite maintaining separate visions on several core issues, showed equal support for a number of ideas (up to a certain point, Crainic was a direct influence on Ionescu). Iorga and Crainic had come to clash over Crainic's emphasis on religion (in front of Iorga's
secularism Secularism is the principle of seeking to conduct human affairs based on naturalistic considerations, uninvolved with religion. It is most commonly thought of as the separation of religion from civil affairs and the state and may be broadened ...
), his political choices, as well as the few links Crainic still maintained with modernism. Similar criticism of Crainic's political influence on ''Gândirea'' was voiced, in retrospect, by Pamfil Șeicaru (himself connected with the Iron Guard for part of his life). Șeicaru believed that the magazine aimed to adapt the influential ideas of
Roman Catholic The Catholic Church (), also known as the Roman Catholic Church, is the largest Christian church, with 1.27 to 1.41 billion baptized Catholics worldwide as of 2025. It is among the world's oldest and largest international institut ...
political activism (the
Catholic Action Catholic Action is a movement of Catholic laity, lay people within the Catholic Church which advocates for increased Catholic influence on society. Catholic Action groups were especially active in the nineteenth century in historically Catholic cou ...
) to an Orthodox environment: " rainic'sOrthodoxism was meant to facilitate the establishment of a party similar to the Democatholic ones". He also argued that
"A political-Orthodox movement crystallized inside a party is destined to be a vain attempt, no matter how much talent N. Crainic may have. And a political ambition is not enough in creating a large-scale social movement. Hence the deviation of ''Gândirea'' magazine from its initial impulse."
The magazine's articles featured accusations that Tudor Arghezi's group, together with others writers, was condoning "
pornography Pornography (colloquially called porn or porno) is Sexual suggestiveness, sexually suggestive material, such as a picture, video, text, or audio, intended for sexual arousal. Made for consumption by adults, pornographic depictions have evolv ...
", and ''Gândirea'' sided with Iorga's similar views on Arghezi's work. In this context, Crainic and his collaborators included antisemitic texts in ''Gândireas columns. At the time, through the voice of Crainic, the magazine hailed Nazi Germany for having "immediately thrown over the border all Judaic pornographers and even those German writers infected with Judaism", and Fascist Italy for "immediately sanctioning a scabrous short story writer".


1940s

Eventually, Crainic rallied with
King King is a royal title given to a male monarch. A king is an Absolute monarchy, absolute monarch if he holds unrestricted Government, governmental power or exercises full sovereignty over a nation. Conversely, he is a Constitutional monarchy, ...
Carol II's National Renaissance Front (FRN) and the authoritarian cabinet of Ion Gigurtu, inspiring the drafting antisemitic legislation, and being appointed to the leadership of the
Propaganda Propaganda is communication that is primarily used to influence or persuade an audience to further an agenda, which may not be objective and may be selectively presenting facts to encourage a particular synthesis or perception, or using loaded l ...
Ministry. Despite the violent conflict between Carol and the Iron Guard, he continued to be ambivalent towards the latter, especially after the FRN was confronted with the Soviet occupation of Bessarabia and the Second Vienna Award; Crainic allowed its activists to broadcast their anthem on
public radio Public broadcasting (or public service broadcasting) is radio, television, and other electronic media outlets whose primary mission is public service with a commitment to avoiding political and commercial influence. Public broadcasters receive ...
, carrying on as minister during the World War II Iron Guard government (the National Legionary State). In 1941, celebrating twenty years of existence, ''Gândirea'' hosted Crainic's thoughts on the " Jewish Question" and the new authoritarian and antisemitic regime of Ion Antonescu, which it had come to support:
"Throughout this time .. Judaism was our most bitter enemy. Not an adversary, but an enemy .. Today, Judaism is vanquished. A splendid act of justice has suppressed he left-wing publications'' Adevărul'', '' Dimineaţa'' and '' Lupta''. The rest, it was only in 1940 that I could carry out when, as Minister of Propaganda, I extirpated all Jewish daily and weekly publications in Romania. The holy right of speaking in the name of Romanianism belongs now to Romanians exclusively. ..There shall be no more artistic and cultural ideals where Judaism could dissimulate itself."
Following the recovery of Bessarabia during
Operation Barbarossa Operation Barbarossa was the invasion of the Soviet Union by Nazi Germany and several of its European Axis allies starting on Sunday, 22 June 1941, during World War II. More than 3.8 million Axis troops invaded the western Soviet Union along ...
, ''Gândirea'' joined the group of magazines that were blaming the territory's original loss on the Bessarabian Jewish community, while Crainic identified past and present Soviet policies with Judeo-Bolshevism.''Final Report'', p.96


Disestablishment and legacy

The magazine ceased publication in 1944, after the August 23 Coup overthrew Antonescu and the Soviet
Red Army The Workers' and Peasants' Red Army, often shortened to the Red Army, was the army and air force of the Russian Soviet Republic and, from 1922, the Soviet Union. The army was established in January 1918 by a decree of the Council of People ...
entered Romania (''see Soviet occupation of Romania''). In May 1945, Crainic was tried ''
in absentia ''In Absentia'' is the seventh studio album by British progressive rock band Porcupine Tree, first released on 24 September 2002. The album marked several changes for the band, with it being the first with new drummer Gavin Harrison and the f ...
'' by a Communist Party-dominated People's Tribunal, as part of the "fascist journalists' group" (alongside Pamfil Șeicaru, Stelian Popescu, Grigore Manoilescu, and Radu Gyr).Țiu He was charged with instigating racial hatred, endorsing the war against the Soviet Union, and helping to keep secret the
war crime A war crime is a violation of the laws of war that gives rise to individual criminal responsibility for actions by combatants in action, such as intentionally killing civilians or intentionally killing prisoners of war, torture, taking hostage ...
s of the Antonescu regime. Found guilty, Crainic was sentenced to
life imprisonment Life imprisonment is any sentence (law), sentence of imprisonment under which the convicted individual is to remain incarcerated for the rest of their natural life (or until pardoned or commuted to a fixed term). Crimes that result in life impr ...
and hard labor (captured in 1947, he was to serve 15 years in the prisons of Communist Romania). In a poll of 102 Romanian literary critics conducted in 2001 by the literary magazine '' Observator Cultural'', the novel '' Craii de Curtea-Veche'', written by Mateiu Caragiale and published in ''Gândirea'' in 1926–1927, was chosen "best Romanian novel of the twentieth century".


Notes


References


''Final Report''
of the International Commission on the Holocaust in Romania, retrieved February 27, 2007 * George Călinescu, ''Istoria literaturii române. Compendiu'', Editura Minerva, Bucharest, 1983: Cap.XXVII, "OrtodoxiÅŸtii", p. 356-363 *Ovidiu Caraiani
''National Identity and Political Legitimacy in Modern Romania''
at the Council for Research in Values and Philosophy, retrieved February 27, 2007 * Dan Grigorescu, ''Istoria unei generații pierdute: expresioniștii'', Editura Eminescu, Bucharest, 1980 * Irina Livezeanu
"After the Great Union: Generational Tensions, Intellectuals, Modernism, and Ethnicity in Interwar Romania", in ''Nation and National Ideology. Past, Present and Prospects. Proceedings of the International Symposium held at the New Europe College, Bucharest, April 6-7, 2001''
Center for the Study of the Imaginary, New Europe College, p. 110-127, retrieved February 27, 2007 *Anneli Maier
"Romanian 'Protochronism' and the New Cultural Order"
at the '' Blinken Open Society Archives'', November 1977, retrieved February 27, 2007 * Zigu Ornea, ''Anii treizeci. Extrema dreaptă românească'', Editura Fundației Culturale Române, Bucharest, 1995 *Mihaela Pop
''The Promethean Man Eastward or Westward?''
at the Council for Research in Values and Philosophy site, retrieved February 27, 2007 * Ilarion Țiu, "Comunism – 'Ziariştii fasciști', în boxa acuzaţilor", in '' Jurnalul Naţional'', March 8, 2006 * Simona Vasilache
Review of Viorel Marineasa, ''Tradiție supralicitată, modernitate diortosită. Publicistica lui Nichifor Crainic și a lui Nae Ionescu la o nouă lectură''
in '' Observator Cultural'', retrieved February 27, 2007 *Francisco Veiga, ''Istoria Gărzii de Fier, 1919-1941: Mistica ultranaționalismului'', Humanitas, Bucharest, 1993 (Romanian-language version of the Spanish edition ''La mística del ultranacionalismo (Historia de la Guardia de Hierro) Rumania, 1919–1941'', Publicacions de la Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, 1989 )


External links


''Gândirea'' archive
BabeÅŸ-Bolyai Universitybr>Transsylvanica Online Library
{{DEFAULTSORT:Gandirea 1921 establishments in Romania 1944 disestablishments in Romania Defunct literary magazines published in Europe Defunct magazines published in Romania Defunct political magazines Expressionist works Fascist magazines Fascism in Romania History of Cluj-Napoca Magazines established in 1921 Magazines disestablished in 1944 Visual arts magazines published in Romania Romanian-language magazines Literary magazines published in Romania Political magazines published in Romania Greater Romania Monthly magazines published in Romania