The Grand Duchy of Posen (; ) was part of the

Kingdom of Prussia The Kingdom of Prussia (, ) was a German state that existed from 1701 to 1918.Marriott, J. A. R., and Charles Grant Robertson. ''The Evolution of Prussia, the Making of an Empire''. Rev. ed. Oxford: Clarendon Press, 1946. It played a signif ...

, created from territories annexed by Prussia after the

Partitions of Poland The Partitions of Poland were three partition (politics), partitions of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth that took place between 1772 and 1795, toward the end of the 18th century. They ended the existence of the state, resulting in the eli ...

, and formally established following the

Congress of Vienna The Congress of Vienna of 1814–1815 was a series of international diplomatic meetings to discuss and agree upon a possible new layout of the European political and constitutional order after the downfall of the French Emperor Napoleon, Napol ...

in 1815. On 9 February 1849, the Prussian administration renamed the grand duchy the

Province of Posen The Province of Posen (; ) was a Provinces of Prussia, province of the Kingdom of Prussia from 1848 to 1920, occupying most of the historical Greater Poland. The province was established following the Greater Poland Uprising (1848), Poznań Uprisi ...

. Its former name was unofficially used afterward for denoting the territory, especially by

Poles Pole or poles may refer to: People *Poles (people), another term for Polish people, from the country of Poland * Pole (surname), including a list of people with the name * Pole (musician) (Stefan Betke, born 1967), German electronic music artist ...

, and today is used by modern historians to refer to different political entities until 1918. Its capital was Posen (). The title of Grand Duke of Posen remained until 1918 to the King of Prussia.

History

Background

Originally part of the

Kingdom of Poland The Kingdom of Poland (; Latin: ''Regnum Poloniae'') was a monarchy in Central Europe during the Middle Ages, medieval period from 1025 until 1385. Background The West Slavs, West Slavic tribe of Polans (western), Polans who lived in what i ...

, this area largely coincided with

Greater Poland Greater Poland, often known by its Polish name Wielkopolska (; ), is a Polish Polish historical regions, historical region of west-central Poland. Its chief and largest city is Poznań followed by Kalisz, the oldest city in Poland. The bound ...

. The eastern portions of the territory were taken by the

during the

; during the first partition (1772), Prussia took just the Netze District, the portion along the

Noteć The Noteć (; , ) is a river in central Poland with a length of (7th longest) and a basin area of .Kościuszko Uprising in 1794. It was initially administered as the province of South Prussia. The Poles were the primary ally of

Napoleon Bonaparte Napoleon Bonaparte (born Napoleone di Buonaparte; 15 August 1769 – 5 May 1821), later known by his regnal name Napoleon I, was a French general and statesman who rose to prominence during the French Revolution and led Military career ...

in Central Europe, participating in the Greater Poland Uprising of 1806 and supplying troops for his campaigns. After the defeat of Prussia by

Napoleonic France The First French Empire or French Empire (; ), also known as Napoleonic France, was the empire ruled by Napoleon Bonaparte, who established French hegemony over much of continental Europe at the beginning of the 19th century. It lasted from ...

, the

Duchy of Warsaw The Duchy of Warsaw (; ; ), also known as the Grand Duchy of Warsaw and Napoleonic Poland, was a First French Empire, French client state established by Napoleon Bonaparte in 1807, during the Napoleonic Wars. It initially comprised the ethnical ...

was created by the Treaty of Tilsit in 1807.

1815–1830

Following the

, portions of the Prussia's Polish territories were ceded to

Congress Poland Congress Poland or Congress Kingdom of Poland, formally known as the Kingdom of Poland, was a polity created in 1815 by the Congress of Vienna as a semi-autonomous Polish state, a successor to Napoleon's Duchy of Warsaw. It was established w ...

, a kingdom ruled in personal union by the Russian Czar. From the remainder the Grand Duchy of Posen was created with the city of Posen as the administrative centre and the seat of the Statthalter Prince Antoni Henryk Radziwiłł. In reality the governing power over the region lay with the provincial upper-president Joseph Zerboni di Sposetti.Historia. Encyklopedia Szkolna. Warszawa 1993. Page 670 At the beginning of the Prussian takeover of Polish territories, the discrimination and repression of Poles consisted of reducing their access to education and the judicial system. Prussian officials identified Germanisation as the progress of higher culture over a lower one. As a result, the local administration discriminated against Poles. After 1824 attempts to Germanise the school system were hastened and the government refused to establish a Polish university in Posen. Polish politicians issued protests against Prussian policies and a secret, patriotic Polish organisation was founded called ''Towarzystwo Kosynierów'' (Society of Scythemen). Resistance activity of Poles resulted in reaction from Berlin, where a trial was held in connection to links between Poles from the Grand Duchy with Poles from Russian-ruled

1830–1840

The 1830

November Uprising The November Uprising (1830–31) (), also known as the Polish–Russian War 1830–31 or the Cadet Revolution, was an armed rebellion in Russian Partition, the heartland of Partitions of Poland, partitioned Poland against the Russian Empire. ...

within

against the

Russian Empire The Russian Empire was an empire that spanned most of northern Eurasia from its establishment in November 1721 until the proclamation of the Russian Republic in September 1917. At its height in the late 19th century, it covered about , roughl ...

was significantly supported by Poles from the Grand Duchy. Afterward, the Prussian administration under Oberpräsident Eduard Flottwell known for his anti-Polonism introduced a stricter system of repression against the Poles. Prussian authorities attempted to expel Poles from administration to weaken the Polish nobility by buying its lands out, and, after 1832, the role of the Polish language in education was significantly repressed. Local self-government in the landed estates of land-lords, which was dominated by Polish nobility, was abolished, and instead the Prussian state appointed commissioners. Monasteries and their assets were confiscated by Prussia. The office of the governor (Statthalter) was abolished. Germanisation of institutions, education as well through

colonisation 475px, Map of the year each country achieved List of sovereign states by date of formation, independence. Colonization (British English: colonisation) is a process of establishing occupation of or control over foreign territories or peoples f ...

was implemented.

1840–1846

On September 11, 1840, an audience was held by the Prussian king for deputies coming from the Grand Duchy. Count Edward Raczyński, in the name of all Polish members of the Grand Duchy Sejm (parliament), issued a complaint against the repression and discrimination of the Polish population which went against guarantees made in 1815. He accused the Prussian authorities of removing the Polish language from public institutions, courts and schools, as well as deleting the history of Poland from school teaching and substituting the name "Province of Posen" for the previous "Grand Duchy of Posen". He also blamed the authorities for erasing the Polish Eagle from the Grand Duchy's seals and emblems and for expelling Poles from offices in order to replace them with Prussians or foreign-born persons of German ethnicity. When land owners of Polish ethnicity sold land, it was often bought in order to resell it to colonists of German ethnicity. The Prussian king rejected the complaint; he was fully supportive of the Germanisation of Polish areas. However, he believed it had to be done through different methods, and in May 1841 decided to name Flottwell upper-president of the Prussian

Province of Saxony The Province of Saxony (), also known as Prussian Saxony (), was a province of the Kingdom of Prussia and later the Free State of Prussia from 1816 until 1944. Its capital was Magdeburg. It was formed by the merger of various territories ceded ...

, which included large territories annexed from the

Kingdom of Saxony The Kingdom of Saxony () was a German monarchy in Central Europe between 1806 and 1918, the successor of the Electorate of Saxony. It joined the Confederation of the Rhine after the dissolution of the Holy Roman Empire, later joining the German ...

in 1815.

Greater Poland Uprising of 1846

Before 1848, repressions intensified in the Grand Duchy, censorship was strengthened, settlers of German ethnicity were brought in.''Historia 1789–1871'' Page 278. Anna Radziwiłł and Wojciech Roszkowski. Large patriotic demonstrations were held in memory of Antoni Babiński, a member of the Polish Democratic Society. He had been wounded by a gunshot, when the Prussian gendarme attempting to arrest him, engaged in a fight with him. Babiński was then captured, sentenced to death and executed in Posen. His public execution in February 1847 was accompanied by public mourning. Cloth soaked in his blood and other remains were distributed as national

relic In religion, a relic is an object or article of religious significance from the past. It usually consists of the physical remains or personal effects of a saint or other person preserved for the purpose of veneration as a tangible memorial. Reli ...

s. Large prayers were held in his memory, often against orders of Prussia. Members of such gatherings were persecuted by police. At the same time the national self-awareness grew among the rural population of Polish and German ethnicity alike. Whereas two thirds of the grand ducal population identified as ethnically Polish (mostly in the centre, south and east), one third envisioned themselves as being of German ethnicity. Anti-Prussian sentiment grew as response to policy of Germanisation and repression by Prussian authorities and the conspiracy organisation called Związek Plebejuszy found a potent ground. It was led by bookseller Walenty Stefański, poet Ryszard Berwiński and lawyer Jakub Krauthofer-Krotowski.

Frankfurt Parliament of 1848 and the Duchy

During the

Revolutions of 1848 The revolutions of 1848, known in some countries as the springtime of the peoples or the springtime of nations, were a series of revolutions throughout Europe over the course of more than one year, from 1848 to 1849. It remains the most widespre ...

, the

Frankfurt Parliament The Frankfurt National Assembly () was the first freely elected parliament for all German Confederation, German states, including the German-populated areas of the Austrian Empire, elected on 1 May 1848 (see German federal election, 1848). The ...

attempted to divide the grand duchy into two parts: the province of Posen, which would have been annexed into a united Germany, and the province of

Gniezno Gniezno (; ; ) is a city in central-western Poland, about east of Poznań. Its population in 2021 was 66,769, making it the sixth-largest city in the Greater Poland Voivodeship. The city is the administrative seat of Gniezno County (''powiat'') ...

, which would have remained outside Germany, but because of the protest of Polish parliamentarians these plans failed and the integrity of the grand duchy was preserved. However, on February 9, 1849, after a series of broken assurances, the Prussian administration renamed the grand duchy the

. Nevertheless, the territory remained outside of the

German Confederation The German Confederation ( ) was an association of 39 predominantly German-speaking sovereign states in Central Europe. It was created by the Congress of Vienna in 1815 as a replacement of the former Holy Roman Empire, which had been dissolved ...

until its dissolution and but was incorporated into the

North German Confederation The North German Confederation () was initially a German military alliance established in August 1866 under the leadership of the Kingdom of Prussia, which was transformed in the subsequent year into a confederated state (a ''de facto'' feder ...

upon its foundation. The Prussian kings retained the title of ''Grand Duke of Posen'' until the fall of the monarchy in 1918.

Area and Population

The grand duchy was in area and was subdivided into two government districts: Posen and

Bromberg Bydgoszcz is a city in northern Poland and the largest city in the historical region of Kuyavia. Straddling the confluence of the Vistula River and its left-bank tributary, the Brda, the strategic location of Bydgoszcz has made it an inland ...

. The regions were further divided into 26 original districts (, ) headed by ''Landräte'' ("district councillors"). Later, these were redivided into 40

districts A district is a type of administrative division that in some countries is managed by the local government. Across the world, areas known as "districts" vary greatly in size, spanning regions or counties, several municipalities, subdivisions ...

, plus two urban districts. In 1824, the Grand Duchy also received a provincial council (term started in 1827) but with little administrative power, limited to providing advice. In 1817, the Culmerland ( Chełmno Land) was moved to

West Prussia The Province of West Prussia (; ; ) was a province of Prussia from 1773 to 1829 and from 1878 to 1919. West Prussia was established as a province of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1773, formed from Royal Prussia of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonweal ...

. From the 1820s, the grand duchy had a parliament, the Sejm of the Grand Duchy of Posen. Today much of the territory lies within the

and Kuyavian–Pomeranian voivodeships. Population: * 900,000 (1815) * 1,350,000 (1849) * 2,100,000 (1910) Since in the first half of the 19th century there was no census or other statistics also recording the ethnic identities of the inhabitants of the grand duchyJerzy Kozłowski
"Die Einführung der preußischen Verwaltung im Großherzogtum Posen 1815–1830"
on

retrieved on February 4, 2013. its ethnic composition can only be derived from its religious makeup then recorded in the census. By 1815 in the grand duchy Catholics were by majority Polish-speaking, most Protestants were native speakers of German and many Jews then spoke Yiddish. Based on the religious data it was estimated that in 1815 ethnic Poles made up about 657,000 persons (or 73% of the overall population), while ethnic Germans were 225,000 (25%) and 18,000 (or 2%) were of the Yiddish culture. In 1819, according to Georg Hassel ethnic Poles were 77% of the population, ethnic Germans 17.5% and

Jews Jews (, , ), or the Jewish people, are an ethnoreligious group and nation, originating from the Israelites of History of ancient Israel and Judah, ancient Israel and Judah. They also traditionally adhere to Judaism. Jewish ethnicity, rel ...

5.5%. Whereas in 1812 Jews in then Prussia proper had been emancipated and naturalised, the Jews of the grand duchy were excluded from citizens franchise, but like women and non-propertied classes mere subjects of the grand duke. Only Christian men, if owning land, were enfranchised as citizens. Whereas Christians had freedom of moving from the grand duchy to Prussia proper, the grand duchy's Jews were forbidden to immigrate into Prussia.''Philo-Lexikon: Handbuch des jüdischen Wissens'', Berlin: Philo Verlag, ³1936, reprint Frankfurt upon Main: Jüdischer Verlag, 1992, p. 570. . Prussian policy, however, opened an exception, Germanized Jews were enfranchised as citizens and granted freedom of movement. So most adherents of the Yiddish culture Germanized themselves within a short period. Many traditional or newly established German language educational institutions were attended by local Jews who, equipped with Prussian education and German language skills, often emigrated to Prussia proper with some making their careers. Despite Germanization efforts, the Polish speaking population more than doubled to 1,344,000 and remained the majority, however, its percentage decreased to 64% of the population by 1910. However, there were regional differences, with Polish being the prevalent language in central, eastern and southern Posen, and German speakers constituted majorities in the north and west.

Religion

According to contemporary statistics of 1825 the population consisted of the 65.6% Roman Catholics, 28.1% Protestants and 6.3% Jews. The Roman Catholic congregations formed part of the Ecclesiastical Province of Gnesen-Posen led by the Primate of Poland, a Roman Catholic jurisdiction formed in 1821 by merging the archdiocese of Gniezno and

Poznań Poznań ( ) is a city on the Warta, River Warta in west Poland, within the Greater Poland region. The city is an important cultural and business center and one of Poland's most populous regions with many regional customs such as Saint John's ...

. The bulk of the Lutheran and Reformed (Calvinist) congregations became part of the ''

Ecclesiastical Province An ecclesiastical province is one of the basic forms of jurisdiction in Christian churches, including those of both Western Christianity and Eastern Christianity, that have traditional hierarchical structures. An ecclesiastical province consist ...

of Posen'' within the Evangelical Church in Prussia after 1817, with the congregations usually retaining their previous separate confessions. With the persisting resistance of some Lutherans against the administrative

Prussian Union of churches The Prussian Union of Churches (known under multiple other names) was a major Protestant church body which emerged in 1817 from a series of decrees by Frederick William III of Prussia that united both Lutheran and Reformed denominations in P ...

, the Evangelical Lutheran Church in Prussia emerged in 1841. It was recognized by the government in 1845, with about 3,000

Old Lutherans Old Lutherans were German Lutherans in the Kingdom of Prussia, especially in the Province of Silesia, who refused to join the Prussian Union of churches in the 1830s and 1840s. Prussia's king, Frederick William III, was determined to unify th ...

in several congregations spread across the area of the grand duchy. Jewish religious life was organised in about 130 congregations spread all over the grand duchy.Gabriele von Glasenapp
"Herzberg, Isaak"
in: ''Biographisches Lexikon für Ostfriesland'', vol. IV, Aurich: 2007, pp. 195–197. Since the government tolerated Judaism, but did not recognise it, no Jewish umbrella organisation, comparable to those of the Christian denominations or the former Council of Four Lands, forbidden in 1764, did emerge in the grand duchy. The migration of Posen Jews to Prussia was mostly blocked until 1850, when they were finally naturalised.

Territorial administration

The monarch of the grand duchy, with title of Grand Duke of Posen, was the Hohenzollern king of Prussia and his representative was the Duke-Governor ( Statthalter): the first was Prince

Antoni Radziwiłł Prince Antoni Henryk Radziwiłł (; 13 June 1775 – 7 April 1833) was a Polish and Kingdom of Prussia, Prussian szlachta, noble, magnate, aristocrat, musician, and politician. Initially a hereditary Duke of Nesvizh, Nieśwież and Olyka, Oł ...

(1815–1831), who was married to Princess Louise of Prussia, the king's cousin. The governor was assigned to give advice in matters of Polish nationality, and had the right to veto the administration decisions; in reality, however, all administrative power was in the hands of the Prussian upper-president of the province.

Organizations

Organizations for items of general interest or province-wide purposes: * Archdiocese of Poznań-Gniezno, seated in Poznań/Posen, a joint diocese of the Roman Catholic Church from 1821 * Posener Provinzial-Bibelgesellschaft (Posen Provincial Bible society; established in 1817 in Posen/Poznań) * Ecclesiastical Province of Posen, seated in Poznań/Posen, a regional branch of the Evangelical Church in Prussia established in 1817/1826 * Naturwissenschaftlicher Verein (Natural Scientific Association, established in 1837 in Posen/Poznań) * Central-Lehrer-Verein für die Provinz Posen (central teachers association; established in 1848 in Posen/Poznań) * Provinzial-Feuersozietät des Großherzogthums Posen (public fire insurance of the Grand Duchy of Posen; established in 1841 in Posen/Poznań) * Posener Provinzial-Lehrerverein (Posen provincial teacher association; established in 1872 in Posen/Poznań) * Provinzialverband Posen (provincial federation of Posen, public-law corporation of self-rule of all districts and independent cities within Posen Province for their common purposes; established in 1875 in Posen/Poznań) * Landwirtschaftskammer für die Provinz Posen (Chamber of Agriculture for the province of Posen; established in 1875 in Posen/Poznań) * Historische Gesellschaft für den Netzedistrikt zu Bromberg (Historical Society for the Netze District in Bromberg, established in 1880) * Pestalozzi-Verein der Provinz Posen ( Pestalozzi aedagogicalassociation for the province of Posen; established in 1883 in Lissa/Leszno) * Historische Gesellschaft für die Provinz Posen (Historical Society for the

, established in 1885 in Posen/Poznań) * Posener Provinzialvereins zur Bekämpfung der Tuberkulose als Volkskrankheit (Posen provincial association for fighting tuberculosis as a people's disease; established in 1901 in Posen/Poznań) * Verband der Landwirtschaftlichen Genossenschaften für die Provinz Posen (Association of the agricultural cooperatives for the province of Posen; established in 1903 in Posen/Poznań) * Sparkassenverband der Provinz Posen (Association of savings and loan banks in the province of Posen; established in 1906 in Posen/Poznań)

Polish organisations

* Scientific Help Society for the Youth of the Grand Duchy of Posen (established in 1841, )scholarship for the poor youth * Poznań Bazar (Bazar Poznański, established 1841) * Central Economic Society for the Grand Duchy of Poznań (established in 1861, )promotion of modern agriculture *

People's Libraries Society People's Libraries Society ( (TCL)) was an educational society established in 1880 for the Prussian partition of Poland (active in the regions of Greater Poland or the Grand Duchy of Poznan, Pomerania, West Prussia, Kashubia and Silesia). Its ma ...

(established in 1880, ) promotion of education among the people * Poznań Society of Friends of Arts and Sciences (established in 1875, ) promotion of arts and sciencies

German organisations

Organisations aiming at promoting German-speaking culture, settlements, or expressively addressing German-speaking audiences: * Prussian Settlement Commission ( Ansiedlungskommision, established in 1886) * Deutscher Ostmarkenverein (DOV, German Eastern Marches Society; Polish abbreviation: Hakata; established in 1894 in Posen/Poznań) * Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kunst und Wissenschaft zu Posen (German society for art and sciences, established in 1901 in Posen/Poznań) * Deutsche Gesellschaft für Kunst und Wissenschaft zu Bromberg (German society for art and sciences, established in 1902 in Bromberg/Bydgosccz)

Notable people

* Hipolit Cegielski (1815–1868), Polish businessman, social and cultural activist * Dezydery Chłapowski (1788–1879), Polish general, business and political activist * Bernard Chrzanowski (1861–1944), Polish social and political activist, president of the Union of the Greater Poland Falcons (Związek Sokołów Wielkopolskich) * August Cieszkowski (1814–1894), Polish philosopher, social and political activist, co-founder of the Polish League (Liga Polska), co-founder and president of the PTPN * Bolesław Dembiński (1833–1914), Polish composer and organist, activist of the singers societies * Franciszek Dobrowolski (1830–1896), Polish theatre director, editor of Dziennika Poznańskiego (Poznań Daily) *

Tytus Działyński Count Tytus Adam Działyński (1796–1861, son of Ksawery, father to Jan Kanty) was a Polish nobleman, political activist and protector of arts and a Prussian politician. Biography Tytus was born into the rich and influential Polish nobl ...

(1796–1861), Polish political activist, protector of arts * Akiva Eger (1761–1837), foremost leader of European Jewry of his era and Talmudic scholar * Ewaryst Estkowski (1820–1856), Polish teacher, education activist, editor of Szkoła Polska (Polish School) magazine * Eduard Flottwell (1786–1865), Prussian politician, over-president of the Grand Duchy of Poznań * Karl Andreas Wilhelm Freymark (1785–1855), titled bishop, first general superintendent of the between 1829 and 1853"Freymark, Karl"
on
''Baza osób polskich – polnische Personendatenbank''
retrieved on May 6, 2012. * Immanuel Lazarus Fuchs (1833–1902), Prussian mathematician *

Paul von Hindenburg Paul Ludwig Hans Anton von Beneckendorff und von Hindenburg (2 October 1847 – 2 August 1934) was a German military and political leader who led the Imperial German Army during the First World War and later became President of Germany (1919� ...

(1847–1934), general and statesman who led the Imperial German Army during World War I and later became President of Germany * Maksymilian Jackowski (1815–1905), Polish activist, secretary-general of the Central Economic Society (Centralne Towarzystwo Gospodarcze), patron of the agricultural circles * Kazimierz Jarochowski (1828–1888), Polish historian, publicist of the Dziennik Poznański (Poznań Daily), co-founder of PTPN * Hermann Kennemann (1815–1910), Prussian politician, co-founder of the German Eastern Marches Society * Antoni Kraszewski (1797–1870), Polish politician and parliamentarian * Karol Libelt (1807–1875), Polish philosopher, political and social activist, president of PTPN * Karol Marcinkowski (1800–1848), Polish physician, social activist, founder of the Poznań Bazar * Teofil Matecki (1810–1886), Polish physician, social activist, member of PTPN, founder of the Adam Mickiewicz monument of Poznań * Maciej Mielżyński (1799–1870), political and social activist *

Ludwik Mycielski Ludwik Mycielski (13 April 1854, Warsaw – 6 January 1926) was a Polish politician, president of the National Council (Rada Narodowa) in 1913. Biography He was the son of Michał, a publicist and publisher (after the death of his wife, a Je ...

, Polish political, president of the National Council (Rada Narodowa) in 1913 * Andrzej Niegolewski (1787–1857), Polish colonel during the Napoleonic Wars, member of parliament, shareholder of the Poznań Bazar * Władysław Oleszczyński (1808–1866), Polish sculptor, who created a monument of Adam Mickiewicz in Poznań * Gustaw Potworowski (1800–1860), Polish activist, founder of the Kasyno in Gostyn, Kasyno in Gostyń, activist of the Polish League (1848), Polish League (Liga Polska) * Edward Raczyński (1786–1845), Polish conservative politician, protector of arts, founder of the Raczynski Library in Poznań *

(1775–1833), Polish duke, composer, and politician, governor-general of the Grand Duchy of Poznań * Walenty Stefański (1813–1877), Polish bookseller, political activist, co-founder of the Polish League (1848), Polish League (Liga Polska) * Florian Stablewski (1841–1906), Catholic priest archbishop of Poznań and Gniezno, member of Prussian parliament for the Polish faction * Heinrich Tiedemann (1840–1922), Prussian politician, co-founder of the German Eastern Marches Society * Leon Wegner (1824–1873), Polish economist and historian, co-founder of PTPN * Richard Witting (1812–1912), Prussian politician, lord mayor of Posen city/Poznań, 1891–1902

References

Sources

* Robert Alvis, ''Religion and the Rise of Nationalism: A Profile of an East-Central European City'', Syracuse 2005 * ''Gazeta Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego'' * Konstanty Kościnski, ''Przewodnik pod Poznaniu i Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskiem'', Poznań 1909 * T. Dohnalowa, ''Z dziejów postępu technicznego w Wielkopolsce w pierwszej połowie XIX wieku'', in: S.Kubiak, L.Trzeciakowski (ed.), ''Rola Wielkopolski w dziejach narodu polskiego'' * F. Genzen, Z.Grot, F.Paprocki, ''Zabór pruski w Powstaniu Styczniowym. Materiały i dokumenty'', Wrocław-Warszawa-Kraków 1968 * B. Grześ, Jerzy Kozłowski, A. Kramarski, ''Niemcy w Poznańskiem wobec polityki germanizacyjnej 1815–1920'', Poznań 1976 * Witold Jakóbczyk, ''Przetrwać nad Wartą 1815–1914. Dzieje narodu i państwa polskiego, vol. III-55'', Krajowa Agencja Wydawnicza, Warszawa 1989 * Witold Jakóbczyk (ed.), ''Studia nad dziejami Wielkopolski w XIX w.'', vol.I-III, Poznań 1951–1967 * Witold Jakóbczyk (ed.), ''Wielkopolanie XIX w.'', Poznań 1969 * Witold Jakóbczyk (ed.), ''Wielkopolska. Wybór źródeł, t. I 1815–1850'', Wrocław 1952 * Witold Jakóbczyk (ed.), ''Wielkopolska. Wybór źródeł, t. II 1851–1914'', Wrocław 1954 * T. Klanowski, ''Germanizacja gimnazjów w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim i opór młodzieży polskiej w latach 1870–1814'', Poznań 1962 * Czesław Łuczak, ''Życie społeczno-gospodarcze w Poznaniu 1815–1918'', Poznań 1965 * K. Malinowski (ed.), ''X wieków Poznania'', Poznań-Warszawa 1956 * Witold Molik, ''Kształtowanie się inteligencji wielkopolskiej w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim 1840–1870'', Warszawa-Poznań 1979 * F. Paprocki, ''Wielkie Księstwo Poznańskie w okresie rządów Flottwella (1830–1842)'', Poznań 1970 * L. Plater, ''Opisanie historyczno-statystyczne Wielkiego Księstwa Poznańskiego'', wyd. J. N. Bobrowicz, Leipzig 1846 * B. Pleśniarski, ''Poglądy Wielkopolan na sprawy wychowawcze i oświatowe w świetle prasy Księstwa Poznańskiego 1814–1847'', * A. Skałkowski, ''Bazar Poznański. Zarys stuletnich dziejów (1838–1938)'', Poznań 1938 * L. Słowiński, ''Nie damy pogrześć mowy. Wizerunki pedagogów poznańskich XIX wieku'', Poznań 1982 * J. Stoiński, ''Szkolnictwo średnie w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim w I połowie XIX wieku (1815–1850)'', Poznań 1972 * J. Topolski (ed.), ''Wielkopolska przez wieki'', Poznań 1973 * S. Truchim, ''Geneza szkół realnych w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim'', Warszawa 1936 * S. Truchim, ''Historia szkolnictwa i oświaty polskiej w Wielkim Księstwie Poznańskim 1815–1915'', Łódź 1967 * Lech Trzeciakowski, ''Kulturkampf w zaborze pruskim'', Poznań 1970 * Lech Trzeciakowski, ''Pod pruskim zaborem 1850–1914'', Warszawa 1973 * Lech Trzeciakowski, ''Walka o polskość miast Poznańskiego na przełomie XIX i XX wieku'', Poznań 1964 * Lech Trzeciakowski, ''W dziewiętnastowiecznym Poznaniu'', Poznań 1987 * ''Wielkopolski Słownik Biograficzny'', 2nd edition, Warszawa-Poznań 1983

External links

* {{DEFAULTSORT:Posen, Grand Duchy Of Grand Duchy of Posen, 1815 establishments in Prussia 1848 disestablishments in Prussia Former grand duchies Former administrative regions of Greater Poland