Gabriel's Rebellion was a planned

slave rebellion A slave rebellion is an armed uprising by slaves, as a way of fighting for their freedom. Rebellions of slaves have occurred in nearly all societies that practice slavery or have practiced slavery in the past. A desire for freedom and the dream o ...

in the

Richmond, Virginia Richmond ( ) is the List of capitals in the United States, capital city of the Commonwealth (U.S. state), U.S. commonwealth of Virginia. Incorporated in 1742, Richmond has been an independent city (United States), independent city since 1871. ...

, area in the summer of 1800. Information regarding the revolt was leaked before its execution, and Gabriel, an enslaved blacksmith who planned the event, and twenty-five of his followers were

hanged Hanging is killing a person by suspending them from the neck with a noose or ligature strangulation, ligature. Hanging has been a standard method of capital punishment since the Middle Ages, and has been the primary execution method in numerou ...

. Gabriel's planned uprising was notable not because of its results—the rebellion was quelled before it could begin—but because of its potential for mass chaos and widespread violence. Afterward, Virginia and other state legislatures passed restrictions on free blacks, as well as prohibiting the education, assembly, and hiring of enslaved people, to restrict their ability and chances to plan similar rebellions.

Gabriel

Gabriel ( – October 10, 1800), referred to by some as Gabriel Prosser (though no historical records refer to him by that surname, the surname of his enslaver), was a Virginia born man of African descent born into slavery in 1776 at Brookfield, a large tobacco plantation in

Henrico County, Virginia Henrico County , officially the County of Henrico, is a County (United States), county located in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the population wa ...

. He and two brothers, Solomon and Martin, were enslaved by Thomas Prosser, the owner of Brookfield. Gabriel was literate. He was one of the rare 5% of enslaved people of the colonial era who were able to learn to read and write. Gabriel trained as a

blacksmith A blacksmith is a metalsmith who creates objects primarily from wrought iron or steel, but sometimes from #Other metals, other metals, by forging the metal, using tools to hammer, bend, and cut (cf. tinsmith). Blacksmiths produce objects such ...

and a carpenter. His brother Solomon, and perhaps his father, were blacksmiths. Gabriel, "hired out" by his enslaver to work in Richmond foundries, was able to keep a portion of the wages that he earned. The bulk of it went to Thomas Prosser. Gabriel traveled freely throughout Richmond and Henrico County to work for plantation and business owners. Gabriel was married to Nanny (or Nan), an enslaved woman. They were not known to most historians as having had any children. However, those who claim to be his descendants disagree. Their family history states that Nan was pregnant when Gabriel was executed and had a son she named Solomon. Gabriel was described in newspaper articles as having stood "six feet two or three inches high." His long and "bony face, well made," was marred by losing his two front teeth and "two or three scars on his head." White people as well as black people regarded the literate young man as "a fellow of great courage and intellect above his rank in life." In 1799, Gabriel, his brother Soloman, and a man named Jupiter tried to steal a pig from Absalom Johnson. Gabriel got into a scuffle with Johnson, and he bit off part of Johnson's ear. Jupiter was charged with stealing a hog, which was a misdemeanor, and Soloman was not charged. It was a capital offense for an enslaved person to assault a white person. He could have been hanged for the assault. Because he was a valuable bondsman for Prosser, the judge sentenced him to jail for one month and had his thumb branded. Gabriel was released from jail when enslaver Prosser paid a bond for his release, and he promised a year of good behavior. Richmond history professor and slave law expert Philip J. Schwarz states that it showed Gabriel's intention "to consciously challenge the system of slave control." Historian Douglas R. Egerton, author of ''Gabriel's Rebellion,'' states: "He was physically big, he was literate, he's a fighter, he's a skilled artisan. For all these reasons, he was a natural leader."

Background to the revolt

In Richmond, there were slightly more blacks than whites, with a total population of 5,700 in 1800. Richmond promoted slavery, with a community whipping post where enslavers had punishment meted out in a public square. Enslaved men loaded and moved flatboats of tobacco and other cargo. Throughout the state in 1800, 39.2% of the total population were enslaved; they were concentrated on plantations in the

Tidewater region Tidewater is a region in the Atlantic Plains of the United States located east of the Atlantic Seaboard fall line (the natural border where the tidewater meets with the Piedmont region) and north of the Deep South. The term "tidewater" can be ...

and west of Richmond. Gabriel, living in Virginia in the late eighteenth century, was influenced by the prevailing themes of liberty expounded by the supporters of the

American Revolution The American Revolution (1765–1783) was a colonial rebellion and war of independence in which the Thirteen Colonies broke from British America, British rule to form the United States of America. The revolution culminated in the American ...

. During his lifetime, the number of

free people of color In the context of the history of slavery in the Americas, free people of color (; ) were primarily people of mixed African, European, and Native American descent who were not enslaved. However, the term also applied to people born free who we ...

had grown markedly in the

Upper South The Upland South and Upper South are two overlapping cultural and geographic subregions in the inland part of the Southern United States. They differ from the Deep South and Atlantic coastal plain by terrain, history, economics, demographics, ...

. Many enslaved people were

manumitted Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing slaves Slavery is the ownership of a person as property, especially in regards to their labour. Slavery typically involves compulsory work, with the slave's location of work and ...

thanks in part to the efforts of

Methodist Methodism, also called the Methodist movement, is a Protestant Christianity, Christian Christian tradition, tradition whose origins, doctrine and practice derive from the life and teachings of John Wesley. George Whitefield and John's brother ...

and

Quaker Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestant Christian set of denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally, others referred to them as Quakers ...

abolitionists. Their number was augmented by free black refugees from the

Haitian Revolution The Haitian Revolution ( or ; ) was a successful insurrection by slave revolt, self-liberated slaves against French colonial rule in Saint-Domingue, now the sovereign state of Haiti. The revolution was the only known Slave rebellion, slave up ...

, many of whom had been enslavers themselves. Some Virginia enslavers were nervous about the sharp increase in the number of free blacks in the slave state.

The revolt and outcome

Some historians assert that Gabriel became the leader of the planned rebellion because he was highly intelligent, literate, and a blacksmith. Enslaved and free African-American men in Virginia taught their metalwork skills to their sons. During the spring and summer of 1800, Gabriel began planning a revolt to end slavery in Virginia. Plans were made with enslaved people over ten counties and the cities of

Richmond Richmond most often refers to: * Richmond, British Columbia, a city in Canada * Richmond, California, a city in the United States * Richmond, London, a town in the London Borough of Richmond upon Thames, England * Richmond, North Yorkshire, a town ...

Norfolk Norfolk ( ) is a Ceremonial counties of England, ceremonial county in England, located in East Anglia and officially part of the East of England region. It borders Lincolnshire and The Wash to the north-west, the North Sea to the north and eas ...

, and

Petersburg, Virginia Petersburg is an independent city (United States), independent city in the Commonwealth (U.S. state), Commonwealth of Virginia in the United States. As of the 2020 United States census, 2020 census, the population was 33,458 with a majority bla ...

. He, his brothers, and other blacksmiths turned scythe blades into as many as twelve dozen swords. Musket balls and 50 spears were created. They intended to steal muskets from a tavern. Hundreds of enslaved people from central Virginia expected to march into Richmond and take control of the Virginia State Armory and the

Virginia State Capitol The Virginia State Capitol is the seat of state government of the Commonwealth of Virginia, located in Richmond, the state capital. It houses the oldest elected legislative body in North America, the Virginia General Assembly, first established a ...

. The plan was to hold Virginia's Governor

James Monroe James Monroe ( ; April 28, 1758July 4, 1831) was an American Founding Father of the United States, Founding Father who served as the fifth president of the United States from 1817 to 1825. He was the last Founding Father to serve as presiden ...

hostage so that they could negotiate for their freedom. But on August 30, 1800, the planned day of the attack, heavy rain flooded the streets of Richmond and the creeks in central Virginia. In addition, two enslaved people told their enslaver, Mosby Sheppard, about the plans. Sheppard warned Governor Monroe, who called out the state

militia A militia ( ) is a military or paramilitary force that comprises civilian members, as opposed to a professional standing army of regular, full-time military personnel. Militias may be raised in times of need to support regular troops or se ...

. They patrolled the area and began picking up conspirators. Gabriel escaped downriver to

, but he was spotted and betrayed there by another enslaved person named Will "Billy" King. More than 70 enslaved men were arrested by law enforcement for conspiracy and insurrection. Gabriel was returned to Richmond for questioning, but he did not submit. The trial was heard by five justices in courts of

oyer and terminer In English law, oyer and terminer (; a partial translation of the Anglo-French , which literally means 'to hear and to determine') was one of the commissions by which a judge of assize sat. Apart from its Law French name, the commission was also ...

, rather than a jury. A recruit, Ben Woolfolk, testified that Gabriel intended on writing the words 'death or liberty' on a silk flag, referring to

Patrick Henry Patrick Henry (May 29, 1736 ld Style and New Style dates, O.S. May 18, 1736une 6, 1799) was an American politician, planter and orator who declared to the Virginia Conventions, Second Virginia Convention (1775): "Give me liberty or give m ...

's "

Give me liberty or give me death! "Give me liberty or give me death!" is a quotation attributed to American politician and orator Patrick Henry from a speech he made to the Second Virginia Convention on March 23, 1775, at St. John's Church in Richmond, Virginia. Henry is credi ...

" speech of 1775. One of the enslaved men reportedly said, "I have nothing more to offer than what General Washington would have had to offer, had he been taken by the British and put to trial." Gabriel, his two brothers, and 23 other enslaved people were hanged. ISSAC (BURTON) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. JOHN (JONES) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. MIKE (OWEN) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. NAT (PARSONS) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. SOLOMON (PROSSER) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. WILL (MOSBY) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 September 1800 VA. BILLY (GREGORY) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 September 1800 VA. CHARLES (GREGORY) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 September 1800 VA. FRANK (PROSSER) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 September 1800 VA. MARTIN (PROSSER) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 September 1800 VA. GABRIEL (PROSSER) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 7 October 1800 VA. PETER (CLAIBORNE) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 24 October 1800 VA. BOB (ROYALLS) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 16 January 1802 VA. JOE (JONES) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 16 January 1802 VA. ISAAC (WILKES) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 February 1802 VA. PHILL (HAGOOD) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 12 February 1802 VA. ABRAM (SMITH) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 May 1802 VA. ABSALOM (HILLARD) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 May 1802 VA. FRANK (ROBERTSON) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 May 1802 VA. MARTIN (BASS) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 May 1802 VA. SANCHO (BOOKER) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 May 1802 VA. JEREMIAH (CORNICK) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 28 May 1802 VA. JOHN (HOBSON) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 29 July 1802 VA. ABRAHAM (FITZHUGH) Black M Slave Revolt Hanging 15 February 1805 VA. One individual committed suicide before his arraignment. Eight enslaved men were moved or sold outside of Virginia. Thirteen were found guilty but were pardoned by the governor. Twenty-five were acquitted. Two men received their freedom for informing their enslavers of the plot. The site of Gabriel's execution for several recent years was mistakenly believed to have been at the Shockoe Bottom African Burial Ground, historically known on the Richard Young 1809/1810 Plan of the city of Richmond as the ''Burial Ground for Negroes''. His execution was advertised in 1800 as occurring at the usual place; however, until 1806, the usual place was not yet the location of the Burial Ground for Negroes in Shockoe Bottom. The usual place of execution in 1800 was a place referred to as Gallows Hill near Canal St. at 1st St. The location of Gabriel's burial, as well as others who were executed on Gallows Hill for their involvement in the insurrection, was reported in the newspaper to have been at the burying ground connected to the old Baptist Church, and was said to have been a sort of potters' field used primarily for the interment of Negroes. This burying ground at the old Baptist Church ( First Baptist Church) was located on the northern side of Cary St. between 2nd St. and 3rd St., just a couple of blocks from the place of execution.

Influence

The rebellion was reported in newspapers across the country. James Monroe and Thomas Jefferson were concerned about the optics of executing so many people. Jefferson said, "The other states & the world at large will forever condemn us if we indulge in a principle of revenge." The

Federalists The term ''federalist'' describes several political beliefs around the world. It may also refer to the concept of parties, whose members or supporters call themselves ''Federalists''. History Europe federation In Europe, proponents of deep ...

argued that the rebellion occurred as a result of the

Democratic-Republican Party The Democratic-Republican Party (also referred to by historians as the Republican Party or the Jeffersonian Republican Party), was an American political party founded by Thomas Jefferson and James Madison in the early 1790s. It championed li ...

's support of the French Revolution. Fears of an enslaved revolt regularly swept major enslaving communities. After the rebellion, many enslavers significantly restricted their slaves' ability to travel after a second conspiracy was discovered in 1802 among enslaved boatmen along the Appomattox and

Roanoke River The Roanoke River ( ) runs long through southern Virginia and northeastern North Carolina in the United States. A major river of the southeastern United States, it drains a largely rural area of the coastal plain from the eastern edge of the ...

s. New laws were enacted to restrict free blacks and slaves. The Virginia Assembly in 1802 made it illegal for free or enslaved Black people to obtain and pilot or navigate a boat. Two years later, they could not meet in groups after their work was done or on Sundays. In 1808, state legislators banned hiring out of enslaved people and required freed blacks to leave the state within 12 months or face re-enslavement. The growing population of free blacks had to petition the legislature to stay in the state.

Historiography

The historian Douglas Egerton offered a new perspective on Gabriel in his book ''Gabriel's Rebellion: The Virginia Slave Conspiracies of 1800 & 1802'' (1993). He based this on extensive

primary research Research is creative and systematic work undertaken to increase the stock of knowledge. It involves the collection, organization, and analysis of evidence to increase understanding of a topic, characterized by a particular attentiveness to ...

from surviving contemporary documents. Egerton concluded that Gabriel would have been stimulated and challenged at the foundries by interacting with European, African, and mixed-descent co-workers. They hoped

Thomas Jefferson Thomas Jefferson (, 1743July 4, 1826) was an American Founding Fathers of the United States, Founding Father and the third president of the United States from 1801 to 1809. He was the primary author of the United States Declaration of Indepe ...

's Democratic-Republicans would liberate them from domination by the wealthy Federalist merchants of the city. The internal dynamics of Jefferson's and Monroe's party in the

1800 United States presidential election United States presidential election, Presidential elections were held in the United States from October 31 to December 3, 1800. In what is sometimes called the "Revolution of 1800", the Democratic-Republican Party candidate, Vice President of t ...

were complex. A significant part of the Democratic-Republican base were prominent planters and colleagues of Thomas Jefferson and James Madison. Egerton believes that any sign that white radicals, particularly Frenchmen, had supported Gabriel's plan could have cost Jefferson the election. Enslavers feared such violent excesses as those related to the French Revolution after 1789 and the

. Egerton believed that Gabriel planned to take Governor Monroe hostage to negotiate an end to slavery. Then, he planned to "drink and dine with the merchants of the city". Egerton noted that Gabriel instructed his followers not to kill white Methodists,

Quakers Quakers are people who belong to the Religious Society of Friends, a historically Protestantism, Protestant Christian set of Christian denomination, denominations. Members refer to each other as Friends after in the Bible, and originally ...

, and

Frenchmen French people () are a nation primarily located in Western Europe that share a common French culture, history, and language, identified with the country of France. The French people, especially the native speakers of langues d'oïl from nor ...

. During this period, Methodists and Quakers were active missionaries for

manumission Manumission, or enfranchisement, is the act of freeing slaves by their owners. Different approaches to manumission were developed, each specific to the time and place of a particular society. Historian Verene Shepherd states that the most wi ...

Legacy and honors

Gabriel's rebellion was an important example of enslaved people acting to gain freedom: * In 2002, the City of Richmond adopted a resolution to commemorate the 202nd anniversary "of the execution of the patriot and freedom fighter, Gabriel, whose death stands as a symbol for the determination and struggle of slaves to obtain freedom, justice and equality as promised by the fundamental principles of democratic governments of the Commonwealth of Virginia and the United States of America".C. Ruth Ebrahim, "Virginia State NAACP Conference requests pardon of Gabriel"
, ''The Caroline Register'', Oct 2006, accessed 23 Jul 2008 * The Spring Park Historic Site in Henrico County commemorates Gabriel. * In 2004, the Virginia Board of Historic Resources approved a historic highway marker at the spot where Gabriel was then believed to have been hanged on October 10, 1800. It is between 15th and 16th streets, on the north side of East Broad Street. The state worked with individuals from a group called the Defenders for Freedom, Justice & Equality. * In the fall of 2006, the Virginia State Conference of the

NAACP The National Association for the Advancement of Colored People (NAACP) is an American civil rights organization formed in 1909 as an interracial endeavor to advance justice for African Americans by a group including W. E. B. Du&nbs ...

requested Gov.

Tim Kaine Timothy Michael Kaine ( ; born February 26, 1958) is an American lawyer and politician serving as the Seniority in the United States Senate, junior United States senator from Virginia since 2013. A member of the Democratic Party (United States ...

pardon Gabriel in recognition of his contributions to the civil rights struggle of African Americans and all peoples. * On August 30, 2007, Governor Kaine informally

pardon A pardon is a government decision to allow a person to be relieved of some or all of the legal consequences resulting from a criminal conviction. A pardon may be granted before or after conviction for the crime, depending on the laws of the j ...

ed Gabriel and his co-conspirators. Kaine said that Gabriel's motivation had been "his devotion to the ideals of the American revolution—it was worth risking death to secure liberty." Kaine noted that "Gabriel's cause—the end of slavery and the furtherance of equality of all people—has prevailed in the light of history" and added that "it is important to acknowledge that history favorably regards Gabriel's cause while consigning legions who sought to keep him and others in chains to be forgotten."

Popular culture

Arna Bontemps Arna Wendell Bontemps ( ) (October 13, 1902 – June 4, 1973) was an American poet, novelist and librarian, and a noted member of the Harlem Renaissance. Early life Bontemps was born in 1902 in Alexandria, Louisiana, into a Louisiana Creole peopl ...

wrote ''Black Thunder'' (1936), a historical novel based on Gabriel's Rebellion. *Gigi Amateau wrote ''Come August, Come Freedom: The Bellows, The Gallows, and The Black General Gabriel'' (2012), a historical fiction novel based on Gabriel's Rebellion. *In ''

Roots A root is the part of a plant, generally underground, that anchors the plant body, and absorbs and stores water and nutrients. Root or roots may also refer to: Art, entertainment, and media * ''The Root'' (magazine), an online magazine focusin ...

'',

Alex Haley Alexander Murray Palmer Haley (August 11, 1921 – February 10, 1992) was an American writer and the author of the 1976 book '' Roots: The Saga of an American Family.'' ABC adapted the book as a television miniseries of the same name and ...

's historical fiction, the rebellion is heard of by the book's characters. *In ''Sally Hemings'', Barbara Chase-Riboud's 1979 novel about Hemings's relationship with Thomas Jefferson, Monroe writes Jefferson asking his advice on what to do about the insurrectionists still in jail after "(m)ore than thirty-five" had been executed. Hemings intercedes on their behalf, telling Jefferson, "I think there has been enough hanging," and suggests they be exiled instead. Although it is not made explicit in the novel, it is implied that Jefferson followed her suggestion and advised Monroe accordingly. At the end of the chapter, Hemings says, "I heard that the last of Gabriel's rebels had been reprieved and banished from Virginia by James Monroe. I had not pleaded in vain." *"Gabriel, the Musical" was produced at Firehouse Theatre in Richmond, Virginia, from September 8, 2022, through October 2, 2022. With libretto by Jerold Solomon, Foster Solomon and Ron Klipp and Music & Lyrics by Ron Klipp, the musical tells a semi-fictionalized account of the development of Gabriel's conspiracy and its aftermath on the conspirators, the local government, and the nation. The production was funded in part by a 2020 grant from the

National Endowment for the Arts The National Endowment for the Arts (NEA) is an independent agency of the United States federal government that offers support and funding for projects exhibiting artistic excellence. It was created in 1965 as an independent agency of the feder ...

(grant 1861109-28-20).

Songs

Tim Barry Tim Barry is an American musician and the lead singer of the Richmond, Virginia-based punk rock band Avail. In addition to performing with Avail, he was the bass guitarist in the Richmond-based folk punk band (Young) Pioneers from 1994 to ...

, a singer/songwriter from Richmond, wrote and performed "Prosser's Gabriel" for the album ''28th & Stonewall''. It chronicles the events of Gabriel's life, focusing on the attempted revolution. * Gabriel is mentioned in Public Enemy's song "Prophets of Rage." * Gabriel is the hero of a cleverly subversive

sea shanty A sea shanty, shanty, chantey, or chanty () is a genre of traditional Folk music, folk song that was once commonly sung as a work song to accompany rhythmical labor aboard large Merchant vessel, merchant Sailing ship, sailing vessels. The term ...

recordedFrederick Marryat, ''A Diary in America'' (London, 1839) some forty years after events in

Frederick Marryat Captain Frederick Marryat (10 July 1792 – 9 August 1848) was a Royal Navy officer and novelist. He is noted today as an early pioneer of nautical fiction, particularly for his semi-autobiographical novel '' Mr Midshipman Easy'' (1836). He is ...

's book, ''

Poor Jack ''Poor Jack'' is a novel by the English author Frederick Marryat, published in 1840. Plot It tells the story of Thomas Saunders, a sailor's son and neglected street urchin struggling to survive in Greenwich, London in the early 19th century. ...

'' (1840).

Notes

References

External links

* The Collegian, [https://www.thecollegianur.com/article/2022/10/community-gathers-for-20th-annual-gabriel-gathering-at-shockoe-bottom-african-burial-ground Community gathers for 20th Annual Gabriel Gathering at Shockoe Bottom African Burial Ground] * Richmond Magazine
Nice Shot: Illumination and ReclamationThe 20th annual Gabriel Gathering at the African Burial Ground in Shockoe Bottom
Nov 8, 2022 * Black Agenda Report
Commemorating Gabriel's Rebellion at the African Burial Ground in Richmond, Virginia
Sept 30, 2022

* ttps://www.youtube.com/watch?v=cIqVZf7Ul9Q Library of Virginia, Gabriel's Conspiracy, African American Burial Grounds, 9 of 9, Dr. Philip Schwarz, March 8, 2013
Sacred Ground Historical Reclamation Project, Shockoe Bottom African Burial Ground
{{DEFAULTSORT:Prosser, Gabriel Conflicts in 1800 Crime in Richmond, Virginia Executed revolutionaries Military history of Richmond, Virginia History of slavery in Virginia Slave rebellions in the United States 1800 in Virginia August 1800